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Faraday's discovery was also of much greater practical importance than Oersted's, because it meant that it was possible to generate electric currents by mechanical action, and conversely that it was possible to operate machinery by electric currents. Essentially, the whole of the heavy electrical industry was in Faraday's discovery. However, Faraday himself had little inclination to move in the direction of practical application. He was concerned, as his note-books show, with a long-range project of discovering the interrelations between all the “forces” that were known to the physics of his time-electricity, magnetism, heat, and light – and by a series of ingenious experiments he was in fact able to succeed in establishing every one of these, and to discover in the process many other effects the full explanation of which has had to wait till our time.

The formal translation of Faraday's qualitative intuitions into precise and quantitative mathematical equations required the genius of Clerk Maxwell, who summarized in a brief but informative form the whole of electromagnetic theory.

 

Vocabulary

angle - угол

break (from) - отрыв;   уход

to carry - нести, носить; везти

to count - считать;. полагать, считать

current – электрический ток

genius - гений, гениальная личность

impetus - толчок, стимул, импульс

inclination - наклонность, наклон

inclusive - включающий в себя

ingenious - изобретательный,  искусный; остроумный

interaction - взаимодействие

to produce - производить,   вырабатывать

puzzle - загадка, головоломка;

to require - приказывать, требовать

to summarize - суммировать,   подводить итог

wire – проволока, провод

 

ЗАДАНИЯ  К  ТЕКСТУ:

1. Прочтите текст и скажите о научном вкладе в развитие электромагнетизма каждого из упомянутых в тексте ученых.

 

2. Найдите в тексте английские эквиваленты следующих русских словосочетаний:

тем не менее; под прямыми углами (перпендикулярно), первый уход от; новый стимул; еще один решающий шаг; тщательно спланированные исследования; остроумные (изобретательные) эксперименты; не имел большой склонности к; проект с дальним прицелом; в одном важном и озадачивающем отношении; векторная теория с учетом не только расстояния, но и направления тоже; множества явлений; новая объединенная наука.

 

3. Опираясь на текст, подтвердите или опровергните следующие утверждения.

1. Oersted made electricity a quantitative science. 2. Newtonian mathematical apparatus of mechanics could unlimitedly be applied to electromagnetism. 3. By his experiments Faraday showed complete identity of magnetism and electricity, though the relation between them was dynamic and not static. 4. Faraday laid the foundation of heavy electrical industry theoretically as well as in practice. 5. It was Faraday who realized the idea of joining all forces of nature together. 6. Maxwell gave a comprehensive mathematical explanation of electromagnetism.

 

4. Ответьте на вопросы:

1. How could you explain the importance of Oersted's accidental discovery of the relationship between electricity and magnetism? 2. Who of the great minds among physicists working in the field could you name? 3. What are their merits? 4. Who was the first to apply the Newtonian mathematical apparatus of mechanics to electricity? 5. Did this mathematical apparatus work well in electricity and magnetism (if yes, why, if no, why not)? 6. What new aspect in the relations between electricity and magnetism did Faraday discover? 7. Why was Faraday's discovery so important for practical applications in industry? 8. Why was Faraday not inclined to devote all his attention to the development of electrical industry? 9. If it were you to choose, would you prefer to apply the discovery to practical needs, or to make further researches in the theoretical field? 10. Through whose efforts and when did the two branches electricity and magnetism become a joint science called electromagnetism?

 

5. Подумайте и скажите о:

1. Hans Christian Oersted's accidental discovery.

2. Ohm's law.

3. Ampere's explanation of magnetism.

4. Faraday’s deliberately planned research and his ingenious experiments.

5. Maxwell's merits in the field.

 

 

 

ТЕКСТЫ  ИНФОРМАЦИОННОЙ  ТЕМАТИКИ

 

PERSONAL  COMPUTER

 

The first IBM PC was developed using existing available electrical components. With IBM's badge on the box it became the standard machine for large corporations to purchase. When IBM were looking for an operating system, they went initially to Digital Research, who were market leaders in command-based operating systems (these are operating systems in which the users type in commands to perform a function). When the collaboration between IBM and Digital Research failed, IBM turned to Bill Gates, then 25 years old, to write their operating system.

Bill Gates founded Microsoft on the basis of the development of MS/DOS, the initial operating system for the IBM PC. Digital Research have continued to develop their operating system, DR/DOS, and it is considered by many people to be a better product than Microsoft's.

The original IBM PC had a minimum of 16K of memory, but this could be upgraded to 512K if necessary, and ran with a processor speed of 4.77MHz. Ten years later, in 1991, IBM were making PCs with 16Mb of memory, expandable to 64Mb, running with a processor speed of 33MHz. The cost of buying the hardware has come down considerably as the machines have become commodity items.

Many computers in people's  homes are just used to play computer games.

The widespread availability of computers has in all probability changed the world for ever. The microchip technology which made the PC possible has put chips not only into computers, but also into washing-machines and cars. Some books may never be published in paper form, but may only be made available as part of public databases. Networks of computers are already being used to make information available on a world-wide scale.

 

Vocabulary

available - имеющийся в наличии

to develop - разрабатывать

digital - цифровой

hardware - аппаратная часть

game - игра

memory - память

network - сеть

research - исследование

to upgrade - модернизировать

user – пользователь

 

ЗАДАНИЯ  К  ТЕКСТУ:

1. Прочтите текст, пользуясь словарем.

2. Ответьте на вопросы:

1.  In what way was the first IBM PC developed?

2.  DR/DOS is an acronym. What does it stand for?

3.  Since the invention of the IBM PC many of its features have been improved. Which of the following features does the text not mention in this respect? a) memory  b) speed  c) size d) cost

4.  Give three examples from the text of how the availability of computers has ‘in all probability changed the world forever’.

5. In what other ways are computers used at home or outside work?

6. If you already have a PC, how do you use it? (If not, how would you use one?)

3. Просмотрите текст и найдите синонимы:

1 international    3 buy

2 first     4 improved

General features of operating systems

 

An operating system is a master control program, which controls the functions of the computer system as a whole and the running of application programs. All computers do not use the same operating systems. It is therefore important to assess the operating system used on a particular model before initial commitment because some software is only designed to run under the control of specific operating systems. Some operating systems are adopted as ‘industry standards’ and these are the ones, which should be evaluated because they normally have a good software base. The reason for this is that software houses are willing to expand resources on the development of application packages for machines functioning under the control of an operating system which is widely used. The cost of software is likely to be lower in such circumstances as the development costs are spread over a greater number of users, both actual and potential.

Mainframe computers usually process several application programs concurrently, switching from one to the other, for the purpose of increasing processing productivity. This is known as multiprogramming (multitasking in the context of microcomputers), which requires a powerful operating system incorporating work scheduling facilities to control the switching between programs

In multi-user environments an operating system is required to control terminal operations on a shared access basis as only one user can access the system at any moment of time. The operating system allocates control to each terminal in turn.

An operating system is stored on disk and has to be booted into the internal memory (RAM) where it must reside throughout processing so that commands are instantly available. The operating system commands may exceed the internal memory capacity of the computer in which case only that portion of the OS which is frequently used is retained internally, other modules being read in from disk as required. Many microcomputers function under the control of a disk operating system known as DOS.

 

Vocabulary

application -применение

assess - оценивать

circumstance - обстоятельство

commitment - обязательство

to design - проектировать

productivity - производительность

purpose - цель, назначение

reason - причина

require - требовать

software - программное обеспечение

processing - обработка

 

ЗАДАНИЯ  К  ТЕКСТУ:

1. Прочтите текст, пользуясь словарём.

2. Ответьте на вопросы:

1. What is an operating  system and what is its purpose?

2. Where is an operating system stored and how is it transferred to internal memory?

3. List some of the tasks typically performed by an operating system.

4. Why is it important to assess the operating system on a computer before buying it?

5. What is multiprogramming?

7. Why is an operating system used in multi-user environments?

3. Закончите фразы данными словами: execute, monitor, format, diagnose.

1 ……………. input and output devices.

2 ……………. the status of hardware devices.

3 ……………. hardware interrupts.

4 ……………. new disks.

5 ……………. disk directories.

6 ……………. disk reading and writing operations.

7 ……………. disk errors.

8 ……………         disk commands relating to the deletion, copying, renaming, and dumping of files.

 

Computer  networks

 

Computer networks link computers by communication lines and software protocols, allowing data to be exchanged rapidly and reliably. Traditionally, networks have been split between wide area networks (WANs) and local area networks (LANs). A WAN is a network connected over long-distance telephone lines, and a LAN is a localized network usually in one building or a group of buildings close together. The distinction, however, is becoming blurred. It is now possible to connect up LANs remotely over telephone links so that they look as though they are a single LAN.

Originally, networks were used to provide terminal access to another computer and to transfer files between computers. Today, networks carry e-mail, provide access to public databases and bulletin boards, and are beginning to be used for distributed systems. Networks also allow users in one locality to share expensive resources, such as printers and disk-systems.

Distributed computer systems are built using networked computers that co-operate to perform tasks. In this environment each part of the networked system does what it is best at. The high-quality bit-mapped graphics screen of a personal computer or workstation provides a good user interface. The mainframe, on the other hand, can handle large numbers of queries and return the results to the users. In a distributed environment, a user might use his PC to make a query against a central database. The PC passes the query, written in a special language (e.g. Structured Query Language – SQL), to the mainframe, which then parses the query, returning to the user only the data requested. The user might then use his PC to draw graphs based on the data. By passing back to the user's PC only the specific information requested, network traffic is reduced, if the whole file were transmitted, the PC would then have to perform the query itself, reducing the efficiency of both network and PC.

In the 1980s, at least 100,000 LANs were set up in laboratories and offices around the world. During the early part of this decade, synchronous orbit satellites lowered the price of long-distance telephone calls, enabling computer data and television signals to be distributed more cheaply around the world. Since then. fibre-optic cable has been installed on a large scale, enabling vast amounts of data to be transmitted at a very high speed using light signals.

The impact of fibre optics will be considerably to reduce the price of network access. Global communication and computer networks will become more and more a part of professional and personal lives as the price of microcomputers and network access drops. At the same time, distributed computer networks should improve our work environments and technical abilities.

 

Vocabulary

access - доступ

to connect - соединять

to distribute - распределять

to link - связывать

to perform - выполнять

quality- качество

to reduce - сокращать

reliable - надежный

task - задание, задача

network – сеть

improve – улучшать

price – цена

 

ЗАДАНИЯ  К  ТЕКСТУ:

 

1. Прочтите текст, пользуясь словарем.

2. Совместите слова с их определениями:

1. protocol  a) analyse the syntax of a string of input symbols

2. bulletin board b) a teleconferencing system allowing users to read messages left by other users

3. user interface c) agreement governing the procedures used to exchange information between co-operating computers

4. make a query d) means of communication between a human user and a computer system

5. parse  e) taking place at exactly the same time as something else

6. synchronous f) request a search

 

3. Найдите в тексте синонимы:

1) unclear; 2) place; 3) carry out; 4) cost; 5) world-wide.

 

4. Найдите в тексте антонимы:

1) disparate; 2) conflict, v; 3) preventing; 4) tiny; 5) increase.

 

 

 

ТЕКСТЫ МЕХАНИКО -ТЕХНОЛОГИЧЕСКОЙ ТЕМАТИКИ

 

What  do  mechanical  engineers  study?

 

In the freshman and sophomore years, the mechanical engineering curriculum emphasizes mathematics, chemistry, physics, and basics engineering science. Juniors and seniors take courses in thermodynamics, heat transfer, fluid mechanics, dynamics and control, materials and manufacturing, and systems and design. In addition, seniors choose electives in areas of specialization such as turbo machinery, acoustics, power plant engineering, energy conservation, computer-aided design, materials processes, controls, and composites. Because of the diversity of a mechanical engineer's responsibilities, the curriculum also includes both required and elective courses in English, the social sciences, and the humanities. This broad-based preparation serves the needs of students who enter the profession immediately after graduation as well those who pursue graduate study.

The engineer typifies the twentieth century. He is making the vast contribution in design, engineering and promotion. In the organization and direction of large-scale enterprises we need his analytical frame of mind. We need his imagination.

He may be designing the product itself; inventing new products; testing the product, its components, and the materials in it; analyzing its performance and making a mathematical analysis.

He may be engaged in the development of the new product, making drawings and specifications.

He may be concerning himself with the development of a new production process, or the adaptation of a current process to a new product.

He may be utilizing his engineering know-how in determining the best processes and equipment for the mass production of high-quality products.

He may be the project engineer in charge of the design and installation of a highly automatic conveyer system for handling different kinds of parts between various assembly stations.

He may be working on designing and developing tools, dies, jigs, assembly fixtures, welding fixtures for the production of an automotive body.

In the 20th century the engineer has at his command many new sources of power. He works much to develop better materials especially new alloys for special purposes. He wants to make machinery automatic.

 

Vocabulary

Freshman - первокурсник (амер.)

Sophomore - студент; второкурсник (амер.)

Curriculum - учебный план

heat-transfer - теплопередача

elective - факультативный

diversity - разнообразие

responsibility - обязанности

to pursue - продолжать

to design - конструировать

to develop - развивать

to invent - изобретать

to test - испытывать

to handle - управлять

to make drawings - делать чертежи

assembly station - сборочный участок

tool - инструмент

die - штамп; матрица

jig - узел

fixture – крепление

 

ЗАДАНИЯ  К  ТЕКСТУ:

1. Прочтите текст и скажите по-русски:

- о специфике машиностроения на современном этапе;

- о роли инженера и его основных функциях;

- о деятельности инженера: a) в лаборатории; b) на производстве; c) в конструкторском бюро.

2. Догадайтесь о значении следующих интернациональных слов:

contribution, organization, direction, analytical, to test, component, to analyze, analysis, specification, adaptation, project, conveyer, assembly, station, command, special.

3. Завершите предложения, подобрав соответствующие окончание в правом столбце:

1. The engineer typifies ... 2. He makes a great contribution ...   3. His main functions are ... 4. The engineer also analyses ...   5. So he can work in ...   6. At present the engineer ...   7. The work of the engineer requires ...

... the products' performances. ... deals with the automation of production processes. ... the 20th century. ... the designing office, in the lab and in the production field of engineering. ... designing,    developing and testing the products. ... the analytical frame of mind and imagination. ... to progress.

4. Ответьте на вопросы:

1. What subjects does the curriculum for junior students include? 2. Can seniors chouse any electives? 3. Does the mechanical engineer have the diversity of responsibilities? 4. Is this broad-based preparation necessary? 5. Whose needs does such preparation serve?

 

 

What  is  mechanical  engineering?

 

Mechanical engineering Encompasses the generation, conversion, transmission, and utilization of mechanical and thermal energy and includes the design, construction, and operation of all kinds of mechanical and thermal devices and systems. Of all the engineering disciplines, mechanical engineering offers the greatest breadth, flexibility, and individuality. Indeed, a mechanical engineering education is an ideal preparation for working and living in a technological world. Mechanical engineering emerged as a new field during the industrial Revolution, when the invention of the steam engine revolutionized manufacturing and transportation. As society has grown increasingly dependent upon technology the theoretical and practical knowledge base of the profession has expanded dramatically. Today there is scarcely any area of everyday life that has not been affected by mechanical engineering.

The future of the profession has never been more promising. For students with a keen interest in science and mathematics and desire to apply their knowledge to new and existing products and processes, mechanical engineering offers exciting career opportunities.

Mechanical engineering has been recognized as a separate branch of engineering since the formation of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers of Great Britain in 1847. The development of the textile machinery, steam engines, machine-tools, pumping machinery, turbines and locomotives of that time made such a diversity interest for civilian engineers that these and allied subjects were called mechanical engineering.

Mechanical engineering deals with the design, construction and operation of machines and devices of all kinds, and with research and sciences upon which these depend. Among these machines are prime movers such as engines and turbines using air, gas, steam and water as operating media; pumping machines and other hydraulic apparatus; steam boilers, heating, ventilating, air conditioning and refrigerating equipment, transportation structures used in aviation; automotive engineering, railroads and ships, machine-tools, special machines for industry and for construction of buildings, railroads and harbors. In fact, mechanical engineering enters into the work of all engineers whose machines are to be developed for the processes of specialists of the other branches of engineering. To understand better the extent of the activities and interests of mechanical engineers, the following lists of the professional divisions and technical committees of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) are given: Professional divisions; applied mechanics, aviation, fuel, graphic arts (printing), heat transfer, hydraulics, industrial instruments and regulators, management, materials handling, metals engineering, oil and gas power, process industries, production engineering, railroad, rubber and plastics, textiles, wood industries.