Шпаргалка по "Английскому языку"

Middle part of the tongue — the central part of the dorsum of the tongue 
which is opposite the hard palate. It lies between the blade , and-'the back 
of the tongue. 

Middle phase — the second phase of articulation, or the hold.

Minimal distinctions — the smallest differences, that help to recognize and differentiate words.

Minimal pair — a pair the distinctive difference between the members 
of which are based upon one distinctive difference.

Mispronounce — to pronounce sounds or words with mistakes.

Mistakes in pronunciation — different deviations from the teaching norm 
in the pronunciation of a foreign language.

Monophthong - a vowel sound in the articulation of which the articulating 
organs are more or less stable. 

Monosyllable - a word consisting of one syllable. 

Monotone — equal tone, lacking the necessary variations in the voice pitch.

Monotonous — pronounced with equal tone.

Morphograph — separate graphemic unit which is a graphemic reflex 
of a morpheme.

Morphophonoiogy — this branch of phonology studies the distribution of morphologically correlated sounds in order to establish their phonemic status.

Mouth — the cavity in the head containing the teeth, the tongue and the palate with the uvula.

Mouth cavity — the cavity between the teeth and the pharynx.

Mutual assimilation — bilateral assimilation, when two assimilating sounds equally influence each other.

Narrow — the variety of high, mid, and low positions of the bulk of the tongue when it moves in the vertical direction.

Narrow passage — the term is conventional and characterizes the state 
of the passage for the flow of air in the articulation of vowels or consonants.

Narrow transcription — the system of transcription signs into which 
additional symbols are included which correspond to allophones of phonemes.

Nasal cavity — immovable cavity inside the nose and the nasopharynx; 
it is separated from the mouth cavity by the upper jaw with the teethridge and the palate. 

Nasal sonants — they are articulated with the blocked passage for the flow of air through the mouth cavity. This is effected by lowering the soft palate.

Nasal pharynx (nasopharynx) — the upper part of the pharynx 4 cm long. It is situated above the soft palate. 

Nasal plosion — plosion formed when the soft palate, is separated from 
the back wall of the nasal pharynx and the air quickly escapes through the nasal cavity. 

Nasal vowels — vowels articulated when the flow of air is directed from the lungs both through the mouth and the nasal cavity.

Neighbouring sound — adjacent sound, that which follows.

Neutral position — the position when the tongue is equally removed from front, back, high, and low positions.

Neutral vowel — a mixed vowel of mid-open position, broad variety.

Neutralization — the loss of qualitative and tembral characteristics of vowel sounds in unstressed positions.

Noise consonants - consonants in the production of which there is a noise component characteristic.

Non-final — not terminal, followed by a sound, a word, a group of words.

Nuclear tone — the tone associated with the nucleus of a sense-group is a nuclear tone. In RP they are the following: the high falling, the low falling, the high rising, the low rising, the rising-failing, the falling-rising, the rising-falling-rising, the level tone. 

Nucleus of a diphthong (pi nuclei) — that part of the diphthong, which is more prominent.

Nucleus of a sense-group — the last stressed syllable of a sense-group.

Nucleus of a diphthong - the part of the diphthong, which is more 
prominent.

Obstruction - in articulation it is either a narrowing (incomplete obstruction) 
or a complete closure of the speech organs (complete obstruction).

Occlusive consonants - sounds in the production of which the air stream 
meets a complete obstruction.

Occurrence — frequency with which sounds, phonemes, or words are used.

Open — characterized by the low position of the bulk of the tongue.

Open syllable — the type of syllable which ends in a vowel — CV-type.

Open vowels - vowels which are pronounced with the open, or low position 
of the bulk of the tongue.

Opposition — comparison of sounds, words or morphemes along the lines of 
their qualitative and quantitative characteristics which results in singling out their 
minimal distinctive features, that are phonologically relevant or irrelevant.

Oral sounds - the sounds which are produced with the raised soft palate, 
thus the air goes out of the mouth cavity.

Oratorical style — the type of speech with which orators address large 
audiences. It is characterized by slow rate, eloquent and moving traits.

Organs of speech — the organs that together with biological functions, such 
as breathing, feeding, smelling and tasting, serve to carry out intercommunication 
through the elaborate work of the four mechanisms: the power, the vibrator, the 
resonator and the obstructor.

Orthoepy — the correct pronunciation of the words of a language. The 
interpretation of the rules of reading cannot be done without a good command 
of phonetics. This fact makes grammar and lexicology dependent on phonetics.

Orthographic syllable — a unit into which words are divided in writing or 
print, e.g. range-ing, al-ien. They do not always coincide with phonetic syllables.

Orthography — the system of spelling rules.

Palatalization - softening of consonants, which results from the secondary 
place of articulation — front-secondary focus. It takes place when the middle part 
of the tongue is raised to the hard palate and the air passage is narrowed 
or constricted, which gives the consonant soft colouring. All consonants, with 
the exception of medio-lingual, can be affected by palatalization when they are followed by /I:, I, e, j'/. Palatalization is phonemic in the Russian language 
(compare: пыл — пыль). In the English language palatalization is non-phonemic, 
and when it takes place in the articulation of sounds under the influence 
of the Russian language it is a mistake.

Palatal sound — the sound that is connected with the palate articulatorily.

Palate — the roof of the mouth, separating the mouth cavity from the nasal 
cavity. In articulatory phonetics it is divided into the hard palate, the soft palate 
with the uvula and the teethridge.

Palato-alveolar consonants - the consonants articulated by the tip of the 
tongue raised against the teeth ridge and the middle part of the tongue which 
is simultaneously raised to the hard palate.

Parenthesis — a word, phrase or sentence usually having its own complete 
meaning, inserted into a sentence which is grammatically complete without this 
insertion, and marked off from it by punctuation. In speech it is expressed 
by lowering the pitch of the voice.

Parenthetic — constituting a parenthesis, containing a parenthesis.

Passage for the air stream — the way through which the flow of air goes 
out of the mouth or nasal cavity.

Passive organs of speech — the organs that are either constantly immovable, 
such as the hard palate and the upper teeth, or such that are fixed but can 
be movable.

Pause - a short period of time when sound stops before, starting again.

Peaks of prominence — the points of maximal acoustic activity of tone.

Peculiarity — a feature which characterizes some phonetic phenomenon.

Pharyngal(-geai) — connected with the pharynx.

Pharynx —the cavity between the mouth and the oesophagus 
communicating with the nasal passages and ears.

Phases of articulation — three phases in the articulation of a single sound: 
initial, medial (or central), and final. They may be called differently: excursion, 
stop stage and recursion.

Phoneme — the shortest functional unit of a language. Each phoneme exists 
in speech in the form of mutually non-distinctive speech sounds, its allophones. 
Each speech sound is, an allophone of some phoneme,

Phonemic transcription — this type of transcription is based on the 
principle "one symbol per phoneme". A phoneme is reflected in this transcription 
as an abstraction and generalization. The symbols of a phonemic transcription 
are placed within two slanting lines / /.

Phonetic principle of orthography is a one-to-one correspondence: one 
grapheme corresponds to one phoneme, or sequence of phonemes. This principle 
is realized in phonemic transcription. 

Phonetic system — a systemic combination of five components of the 
language, i.e. the system of segmental phonemes, the phonemic component, 
the syllabic component, the accentual component, intonation.

Phonetics - the science that studies the sound matter of the language, 
its semantic functions.

Phonic — acoustic, connected with voice or sounds.

Phonograph — a machine invented by Edison for recording and reproducing 
sounds (1877).

Phonological mistakes — mistakes connected with the alteration of the 
meaning of words, which prevent communication.

Phonological opposition — a pair of words in which any one phoneme is 
usually opposed to any other phoneme in at least one lexical or grammatical minimal or subminimal pair.

Phonology — the science that deals with phonemes and their sequences. 
It is functional phonetics since it investigates the functional side of phonemes, accent, syllable, and intonation.

Pitch — the degree of highness or lowness varying with the number of vibrations of a note. 

Place of articulation — the place, where complete or incomplete obstruction is formed in the articulation of consonants. 

Plosion — an abrupt separation of speech organs at the place of articulation.

Plosive consonants — the consonants that are articulated by forming a complete obstruction which bars the flow of air sent from the lungs through the mouth or nasal cavity. The organs of speech that form the obstruction produce a kind of explosion on their abrupt separation.

Positional allophones — variants of a phoneme which are used in definite 
positions due to the tradition of a language pronunciation, e.g. dark and light /l/.

Post-alveolar consonants — consonants that are made when the tip or 
the blade of the tongue is against the back part of the teeth ridge or just behind it.

Pre-vocal — a consonant that stands before a vowel.

Primary stress — the stress which is the strongest compared with the other stresses used in a word. 

Principal allophone (typical) — that variant of a phoneme which is considered to be free from the influence of the neighbouring sounds.

Proclitic — a monosyllabic word or particle with no accent of its own, or any unstressed syllable which is pronounced with the following pre-tonic or, accented syllable as one phonetic unit. 

Progressive assimilation — the process when the first of the two neighbouring sounds influences the second and makes it similar to itself. Prominence — singling out acoustically, which produces the effect of greater loudness.

Pronounce — to articulate.

Prosodic features of the sentence — they are; speech melody, the pitch (fundamental frequency), accent, tempo, rhythm and pausation, tamber; they constitute intonation in the broad sense — prosodation or prosodization/

Prosody — acoustic properties.

Prosodies — performs constitutive and recognitive function.

Protrude — to move forward. In phonetics this term is connected with the protrusion of the lips. 

Qualitative — connected with the tamber of the sound, that is with its spectral characteristics.

Quantitative — referring to the length of the sound: positional and 
phonemic.

Received pronunciation — the type of pronunciation which is the most 
widely understood one in England and in English-speaking countries. It is the 
teaching norm in England and in most countries where English is taught 
as a. foreign language including Russia.

Recessive stress — stress that falls on the first syllable or the root of the 
word if it is preceded by a prefix that has lost its meaning, e.g. 'import, before.

Recessive tendency — the tendency which consists in gradual shifting 
of word accent to the first syllable (which is usually the root of the word).

Reciprocal assimilation — bilateral assimilation, when the neighbouring 
sounds are equally affected by assimilation.

Recite — to repeat outloud something memorized, especially before an 
audience.

Reduce — to make smaller or less.

Reduced form — a word, which sounds weaker in the process of speech.

Regressive assimilation — the process when the second of the neighbouring 
sounds influences the first one and makes it similar to itself.

Resonant — the term is used by H. Gleason for vowels and sonorous 
consonants.

Retention — the ability to preserve the most stable properties in spite 
of assimilation or reduction.

Retentive tendency — this tendency is characterized by the retention of 
accent in the derivative on the same syllable on which it falls in the parent word, 
e.g.'similar, as'similate.

Retracted position — the position of the bulk of the tongue when it is in the 
front or in the back part of the mouth cavity but a bit retracted in the horizontal direction, forward — back-advanced /и/,or backward — front-retracted: /тут какая то буква/

Retroflex articulation — the tip of the tongue is turned back so, that 
the closure is relatively far back on the palate, it may be made with the underside of the tip, e.g. American /г/.

Rhyme - the repetition of identical or similar terminal sounds, sound 
combinations or words.

Rhythm - periodic recurrence of stressed syllables.

Rhythmic stress — the term refers to the cases when there are equal number 
of unstressed syllables between two beats. 

Rhythmic tendency — the tendency to alternate stressed and unstressed 
syllables. This tendency gave rise to the origin of the secondary stress, especially 
in four-syllable words of foreign origin.

Rolled consonants - consonants produced when the tip of the tongue 
vibrates in the flow of air and interrupts it repeatedly, so that the flow of air is 
momentarily obstructed by the vibrating organs.

Roof of the mouth — for purposes of consonant analysis and description 
it is conventionally divided into: 1. the gums; 2. the teethridge; 3. the back slope 
of the alveolar ridge and the hard palate; 4. the soft palate (velum) 5. the uvula.

Rules of reading - the system of rules dealing with the correspondence 
between the reading matter of the language and its pronunciation.

Scale of sonority — the arrangement of phonemes according to their degree 
of loudness. According to this scale the most sonorous are front low vowels, then 
go sonants and voiced consonants. Voiceless consonants are characterized 
by minimal sonority.

Schwa vowel — the neutral vowel /тут какая то буква/.

Secondary accent — this type of accent appears in words of five or more 
syllables. It falls on the second pretonic syllable.

Segment — in phonetics it is the shortest part of speech continuum — 
a sound or a phoneme.

Semantic tendency — according to this type-of tendency words with 
separable prefixes and compound words may have two equally strong stresses.

Semi-vowels — the term is almost out of use nowadays. It refers to /j,w/.

Sensergroup - a word or a group of words that conveys some idea.

Sentence stress — the greater degree of prominence given to certain words 
in a sentence,

Short vowels - the vowels having a relatively smaller length, or quantity 
in comparison with the long vowels.

Sibilants — the sounds of a whistling or hissing nature.

Silent letters — letters that are spelt but not pronounced.

Similarity — likeness.

Single stress — only one stress in a word.

Slip of the tongue — a small unintentional mistake.

Soft palate - the soft back part of the top of the mouth.

Sonorants - the sounds in the production of which voice prevails over noise.

Sound - a material unit, produced by speech organs.

Speech melody — variations in the pitch of the voice in connected speech.

Spread lip position — the position when the comers of the lips are widened 
in the horizontal direction, the teeth are slightly visible, and the lips come close 
to the gums. This position of the lips can be observed in the articulation of /i:/.

Stability of articulation - is the state when the shape and volume of the 
mouth resonator are stable. According to the stability of articulation English 
vowels are divided into: monophthongs, diphthongs and diphthongoids.

Staves — two parallel lines for intonation recording (by means of special 
symbols).

Stress or accent is a greater degree of prominence which is caused mainly by 
pronouncing the stressed syllable (a) on a different pitch or with a change of pitch 
direction in it; (b) with greater force of exhalation and greater muscular tension.

The greater force of articulation is accompanied by an increase in the length of the sound in the stressed syllable, especially vowels. Vowels in the stressed syllables 
are not reduced.

Strong forms — the forms that can be observed in accented words.

Strong vowels in weak positions — vowels the quantity of which is not 
reduced in unstressed positions.

Substitution method — the method of replacing of one speech sound 
by another in the same position to see whether it results in a minimal pair.

Syllabic — capable of forming a syllable.

Syllabic sounds — sounds that can form the peaks of prominence, they are 
vowels and sonants other than /j, w/.

Syllable — shortest segment of speech continuum. Syllables are material 
carriers of words. They constitute words and their forms, phrases and sentences.

Tail — unstressed or partly stressed syllables (or syllable) that follow 
the nucleus of the intonation group.

Tamber (timbre) — the quality of a musical sound, depending on what 
overtones are present and their respective amplitudes.

Tempo of speech — the rate of utterance.

Temporal component of intonation — it consists of pauses, duration, 
rhythm.

Tense vowels — these vowels are articulated with the muscles of the lips, 
tongue, cheeks and the back wall of the pharynx made harder by tensing. 
Traditionally they are long vowels.

Terminal tone — a change of pitch at the junction of two sense-groups.

Tongue — the most important and movable articulatory organ.

Tongue twisters — short rhymes into which difficult sounds and sound 
combinations are included. They are used as training exercises in teaching 
pronunciation.

Tonogram — graphic representation of intonation.

Trachea (windpipe) - air passage.

Transcription — the system of signs in which sounds are symbolized. 
Transcription represents sounding speech. A phonemic, or linguistically broad, 
transcription is based on the principle "one symbol per phoneme". The symbols 
of phonemic transcription are placed between slanting lines //

An allophonic, or linguistically narrow, transcription is based on the principle 
"one symbol per allophone". The symbols of an allophonic transcription are 
usually placed between square brackets [ ]. In language teaching a phonemic 
transcription is more convenient. An allophonic transcription is indispensable 
to scientific phonetic work.

Transliteration — the representation of the sounds of one language as nearly 
as possible by the letters and letter combinations of another language.

Triphthong - a vowel sound that consists of three elements; the first element

is a diphthong and the second — a neutral vowel /тут какая то буква/.

Unicentral consonants — consonants pronounced with a single articulatory 
obstruction (complete or incomplete).

Unrounded vowels - vowels in the articulation of which the lips are not 
rounded.

Utterance — vocal expression of some idea.

Uvula — a fleshy conical body suspended from the soft palate over the back 
of the tongue.

Variety — the term is used in connection with the vowels of low and broad 
variety.

Velar — the term is used in the classification of consonants ; which are 
articulated with the help of the soft palate. 

Velum — the soft palate. When the soft palate is raised the air passes out of 
the mouth cavity, when the soft palate is lowered the flow of air is directed 
through the nasal cavity.

Vocal bands (vocal cords) — elastic folds of membrane inside the larynx 
which vibrate to produce voice.

Vocalism — the system of vowel phonemes.

Voice — vocal tone produced by the regular vibrations of the vocal cords.

Voiced consonants - sounds produced with the vocal cords brought together 
and vibrating.

Voiceless consonants - consonant sounds which are produced with the vocals 
cords taken apart and not vibrating. 

Weak vowels — the vowels which are shorter and less-distinct, sometimes they are reduced to the neutral vowel /тут какая то буква/. 

Word-stress or word accent — every disyllabic and polysyllabic word 
pronounced in isolation has word-stress. It is a singling out of one or more of its 
syllables by giving them a greater degree of prominence¹ as compared with the 
other syllable or syllables in the same word.