Шпаргалка по "Английскому языку"

GLOSSARY

Accent - is stress and pitch combined. If a stress occurs in the stepping head 
without a downward step in pitch, the word concerned is not accented. Stress in 
such words is usually weakened because there is no change of pitch accompanying 
them.

Accommodation - adaptation of vowels to different adjacent sounds, e.g. in 
/tu:/ /t/ is labialized under the influence of /u:/ and /u:/ is a little bit advanced under 
the influence of /t/.

Acoustic phonetics - a branch of phonetics which deals with physical 
properties of sounds.

Adjacent sounds - sounds that follow each other.

Affricates - the sounds formed during the separation of the articulating 
organs: in their articulation the complete closure gradually and uninterruptedly 
opens into a narrowing.

Allophones - variants or members of one and the same phoneme, which 
never occur in identical positions.

AUophonic transcription - this type of transcription is based on the 
principle "one symbol per allophone". This transcription provides a special sign 
for each variant of each phoneme. A phoneme is reflected in this transcription as a 
unity of all its allophones. The symbols of an allophonic transcription are usually 
placed between square brackets [ ].

Alternation of sounds — changes of the sounds in different derivatives from 
the same root or in different grammatical forms of the same word or in different 
allomorphs of the same morpheme.

Alveolar consonants - articulated by the tip of the tongue, which makes 
a complete obstruction with the alveoles.

Alveoles, or Alveoli — depressions in the upper jaw,..which socket the upper 
teeth.

Apex — the tip of the tongue.

Apical - articulated by the tip of the tongue against either the upper teeth 
or the alveolar ridge.

Articulate - to pronounce audibly and distinctly.

Articulation - coordinated movements of speech organs in the process 
of speech.

Articulatory phonetics — the description and classification of speech 
sounds articulated by the speech apparatus.

Aspiration - a slight puff of breath which is heard after the explosion of/p, t, 
к/ in initial position.

Assimilation - the process of alteration of speech sounds as a result of which 
one of the sounds becomes fully or partially similar to the adjoining sound.

Attitudinal function - this function is performed by intonation, when 
the speaker expresses his attitude to what he is saying, by intonation alone, e.g.: low fall — lack of interest: Have you? high fall — surprise: Is she?

Back vowels - vowels, which are formed with the bulk of the tongue in the 
back part of the mouth cavity, when it is raised towards the junction between 
the hard and the soft parts of the palate.

Back advanced vowels - vowels, which are formed when the tongue is 
in the back part of the mouth cavity but is slightly advanced and the central part 
of it is raised towards the front part of the soft palate.

Back secondary focus — it is formed by raising the back part of the tongue 
towards the soft palate (velarisation); e.g. /w/ and "dark" [1] are pronounced with 
the back secondary foci.

Bicentral — formed with two places of articulation.

Bicentral consonants — consonants articulated with two centres of complete 
or incomplete obstruction.

Backlingual consonants (velar) - sounds produced with the back part 
of the tongue raised towards the soft palate.

Bilabial - articulated by the upper and the lower lip.

Body of the tongue — the whole of it.

Breath — the process of blowing the air out of the mouth or nasal cavity 
through the bronchi and the wind-pipe, or blowing it into the lungs.

Bronchi — two main divisions of the trachea, leading into the lungs.

Bulk (body) - the whole.

Cacuminal - articulated by the tip and the blade of the tongue raised against 
the back slope of the teeth ridge.

Cardinals — an international standard set of artificial vowel sounds which, 
according to D. Jones, can be produced with the bulk of the tongue at the four 
cardinal points in the front part of the mouth cavity and at the, four cardinal points 
in the back part of the mouth cavity.

Central vowels - vowels formed when the front part of the tongue is raised 
towards the back part of the hard palate.

Centring diphthongs - diphthongs which glide to central /э/.

Checked vowels — short stressed vowels pronounced without any decrease 
in the force of articulation and immediately followed by consonants.

Classification — the method which studies common properties of the 
investigated phenomena and which is used to arrange them systematically.

Classify — to arrange the common properties of (phonetic) phenomena 
according to their typical characteristics.

Clear sound — the sound which is made softer due to additional articulator 
work.

Close transition — articulation of two neighbouring sounds when the first 
stage of the second sound takes place already during the medial stage of the first 
sound.

Coalescent — bilateral assimilation of two sounds when in the result they 
give a new sound.

Combinatory allophones — variants of a phoneme which appear in speech 
as a result of assimilation and adaptation or of the specific ways of joining sounds 
together.

Communicative centre — a word or a group of words which conveys 
the most important point of communication in the sense-group or sentence.

Communicative types — the types of sentences which are differentiated 
according to the type of intonation. V. A. Vassilyev gives the following 
communicative types: 1. Categoric and non-categoric statements. 2. Disjunctive 
questions. 3. Commands. 4. Exclamations. 5. Special questions. 6. Alternative 
questions. 7. General questions and 8. Requests.

Comparative phonetics - branch of phonetics which studies the correlation 
between the phonetic system of two or more languages.

Complementary distribution — arrangement of allophones of one and the 
same phoneme, which occurs in different contexts, but in a definite set of them.

Complete assimilation — assimilation when one of the two adjacent sounds 
fully coincides with the other.

Consonant - a sound of noise, which is formed by a complete or incomplete 
obstruction.

Constitutive function of speech sounds — the function to constitute 
the material forms of morphemes, words and sentences.

Constrictive fricative consonants - consonant sounds in the articulation 
of which the air passage is constricted and the air escapes through the narrowing 
with friction.

Constrictive sonorants (sonants) - consonant sounds made with 
an incomplete obstruction, but the narrowing for the air passage is not wide 
enough to eliminate the noise or friction completely; on the other hand it's wide 
enough for tone prevailing over noise.

Contact - a closure made by the organs of speech.

Dark sound — the sound which is made harder due to additional articulatory 
work' the raising of the back part of the tongue to the soft palate (back secondary 
focus). 

Dental consonants - consonants produced with the tip and the blade 
of the tongue placed against the upper front teeth. (Sounds [t, d, n] before [6 - 6]). – тут значки посмотри

Descending scale — gradual lowering of the voice pitch.

Descriptive phonetics — studies the contemporary phonetic system 
of a language, i.e. the system of its pronunciation, and gives a description of all 
the phonetic units of this language.

Devoice — to pronounce with the vocal cords switched out. Voiced 
consonants are gradually devoiced in the terminal position and under the influence 
of the adjacent voiceless consonant (not so much as in the Russian language).

Diachronic approach — analysis of the phenomena which refer to different 
periods of development.

Dialectology — the branch of phonetics which studies the dialectal 
differences in pronunciation.

Diaphone - allophone of one and the same phoneme, pronounced by 
different people.

Diaphragm — that part of the power mechanism which separates the cavity 
of the chest from the abdominal cavity.

Diction — a way of speaking. The selection and control of words to express 
ideas (command of vocabulary, grammatical correctness, affective word order, 
etc.).

Digraph - combination of two letters equivalent to one phoneme.

Diphthong - a vowel phoneme which consists of two elements: a nucleus 
and a glide. The first element of a diphthong is more loud and distinct; the glide 
which sho ws the direction of the quality change is very weak.

Diphthongization - slight shifting of the organs of speech position within 
the articulation of one and the same vowel (these organs are mostly — the tongue, 
the lips and the lower jaw). Diphthongization changes the quality of the sound 
during its articulation.

Diphthongoids - vowels in the pronunciation of which the articulation 
is slightly changing but the difference between the starting point and the. end 
is not so distinct as it is in the case of diphthongs.

Dissimilation - substitution of one sound for another, similar in tapiber but 
different articulatorily: пролубь, лыцарь instead of прорубь, рыцарь.

Distinctive function of speech sounds - it is manifested most conspicuously 
in minimal pairs when the opposition of speech sounds is the only phonetic means 
of distinguishing one member of that pair from the other.

Distributional analysis — this method helps to establish the distribution 
of speech sounds, i.e. all the positions or combinations in which each speech 
sound of a given language occurs (or does not occur) in the words of the language.

Disyllabic - consisting of two syllables.

Dorsal consonants - pronounced with the blade of the tongue against either 
the upper teeth or the alveolar ridge.

Dorsum of the tongue - the middle and back parts of the tongue.

Double stress - two stresses within one and the same word.

Drawl - to pronounce slowly.

Duration - length.

Dynamic accent - force accent based mainly on the expiratory effort.

Edges of the tongue - the rims of the tongue.

Elision - dropping off of a sound in rapid or careless speech.

Emphasis - combination of the 'expressive means of the language to single 
out emphatic words, groups of words or whole sentences.

Emphatic - that which refers to emphasis.

Enclitic - unstressed word or syllable, which refers to the preceding stressed 
word or syllable.

Exhalation - breathing the air out of the lungs and the mouth cavity.

Exhale - to breathe the air out of the lungs and the mouth cavity.

Experimental phonetics - the branch of phonetics which studies phonetic 
phenomena through observation and with the help of different apparatus and 
devices.

Expiration - breathing the air out.

Explosion (plosion) - noise made by the air, when it is suddenly released 
through a complete obstruction.

Fall - lowering of the voice pitch within a stressed syllable.

Fixed word accent - this type of accent is characterized by the fixed position, of stress. 

Flapped consonants - articulated by a single tap of the tip of the tongue 
against the teethridge. For example: [r] m sorry, very.

Flat narrowing - passage for the flow of air, which is more or less flat. 
The sounds If V/ are pronounced with the flat narrowing.

Flow of air - the stream of air.

Focus (pi. foci) - the place in the mouth cavity, in which the obstruction 
(complete or incomplete) is formed in the articulation of a consonant. Front 
secondary focus is formed by the middle part of the tongue raised against the hard 
palate. Back secondary focus is formed by the back part of the tongue raised 
against the soft palate.

Forelingual - articulated by the tip of the tongue raised against the upper 
teeth or the teeth ridge. 

Fortis consonants - voiceless consonants, which are pronounced with strong 
muscular tension and strong expiratory effort (compare with lenis consonants).

Free acfcentual variants - they are variants of individual pronunciation — 
interididlectal variants. E.g. 'hospitable, hos'pitable.

Free variations — intraidiolectal and interidiolectal variations which are 
spontaneous, unintentional, non-functional, non-distinctive.

Free word accent — the type of accent which is characterized by the free 
accidence of the word accent; in different words of the language different syllables 
can be stressed the first, the second, the third. Free word accent has two 
subtypes: a) constant, which always remains on the same morpheme: 
'wonder,'wonderfully andb) shifting, which changes its place: сад, садовод.

Fricative consonants — produced by friction of the flow of air through 
the narrowing formed by articulatory organs.

Frictionless — produced without any audible friction.

Frictionlcss continuants — the term may be used in reference to constrictive 
sonants /w, r, j/, which are pronounced with little noise and can be prolonged 
or continued.

Front of the tongue — the blade and the tip of the tongue. The blade 
and the middle of the tongue in the terminology of English phoneticians.

Front-retracted vowels - vowels in the production of which the tongue is in 
the front part of the mouth cavity but slightly retracted, and the part of the tongue 
nearer to centre than to front is raised.

Front vowels - vowels articulated when the bulk of the tongue moves 
forward and its front part is raised highest towards the hard palate.

Fally voiced — consonants pronounced with the vocal cords vibrating from 
the first to the last stage of their articulation.

Functional — phonological, connected with differentiatory function.

Functional phonetics — the branch of phonetics which studies the purely 
linguistic aspect of speech sounds.

Functions of a phoneme — in speech a phoneme performs three functions: 
1. distinctive, 2. constitutive and 3. recognitive; they are inseparable.

General American (G.A.) — the most widespread type of educated 
American speech.

General phonetics — analysis, description, and comparison of phonetic 
phenomena in different languages.

Glide — that part of a diphthong which constitutes its additional element, 
the full articulation of which is not accomplished.

Glottal sound - when the glottis is narrowed during exhalation, the air passes 
out of the mouth cavity and consonant sound Pa} is pronounced.

Glottal stop - a speech sound made by completely closing and then opening 
the glottis, which reminds a slight cough and may take the place of [t] between 
vowel sounds or may be used before a vowel sound.

Glottis - the space between the vocal cords, which produce the sound 
of the voice by movements in which this space is repeatedly opened and closed.

Grapheme — an orthographic unit with which a phoneme can be correlated.

Hard palate - the bony front part of the top of the mouth.

Head — stressed syllables preceding the nucleus together with the unstressed 
syllables.

Height — the width of the resonating cavity in the articulation of vowels.

Height of the tongue — the height to which the bulk of the tongue is raised 
and which determines the level of the raised bulk of the tongue: high, mid, or low.

Historical assimilation — sound changes, which are the result of the 
historical development of the language.

Historical phonetics - that branch of phonetics, which studies phonetic 
components on the diachronic level; it is a part of the history of a language, which 
studies the history of the development of the phonetic laws.

Hold — the second stage of a single sound articulation.

Homographs — words that are similar in orthography but different 
in pronunciation and meaning.

Homophones — words that are similar in pronunciation but' different 
in orthography and meaning.

Idiolect — the individual speech of a member of a language community .

ldiophone — one and the same speech sound which is pronounced 
differently in different idiolects.

Inhalation — breathing the air in.

Initial phase — the first phase of a sound articulation. 
Instrumental phonetics — different techniques and devices used in experimental phonetics.

Interdental articulation — articulation characterized by the interdental; 
position of the tip of the tongue in articulating /0, Ы. In speech these sounds are 
often pronounced as dental, with the tip of the tongue placed behind the upper 
teeth.

Interdental sounds - consonant sounds produced when the tip of the tongue 
is in the position between the upper and lower teeth.

Intermittent closure — this type of closure is formed when the. tip 
of the tongue is rapidly tapping against the teethridge as in the articulation 
of trilled, or rolled /р/.

Intonation - a component of the phonetic structure which is viewed 
in the narrow meaning as pitch variations, or speech melody.

Intonation group - an actualized sense group.

Intrusive sounds — alien to the word, but pronounced in actual speech 
for the purpose of linking.

Jaws — parts of the mouth, which bear teeth and by means of which 
the mouth can be opened and closed.

Junction — the joining of two sounds .or words.

Juncture — the place, where two sounds or words are joined together.

Kinetic — relating to motion, producing motion.

Kymograph —the apparatus used to record speech sounds graphically. 
Kymograms help to ascertain the quality of various sounds.

Labial sounds - consonant sounds articulated by the lips.

Labialization — lip rounding.

Labialized vowels - vowels produced with a more or less lip rounding.

Larynx — an organ of the respiratory tract above the windpipe. It consists 
of an elaborate arrangement of cartilage and muscles and contains a pair of vocal 
cords.

Lateral — having to do with the sides of the tongue.

Lateral sounds —sounds in the articulation of which the air passages 
(or a passage) are formed at the lateral sides of the tongue. At the same time 
the contact is made by the tip of the tongue pressed against the teethridge.

Law of conditioned allophonic similarity — two more or less similar 
sounds, which are at the same time more or less different, are ailophones 
of the same phoneme, if their difference is due to non-distinctive factors.. . ..

Law of great phonemic dissimilarity — entirely different sounds such 
as a vowel and a consonant cannot be ailophones of the same phoneme.

Laws of phonemic and allophonic distribution — 1. if different speech 
sounds occur in the same phonetic context, they are ailophones of different 
phonemes; 2. if similar speech sounds occur in different positions and never occur 
in the same phonetic context, they are variants of one and the same phoneme.

Lax vowels — vowels in the articulation of which the muscular tension 
of the tongue, lips, and the walls of the resonating cavities, is not so great as 
in the articulation of tense vowels.

Length of the sound — length of the sound waves in the articulation 
of a sound.

Lenis (pi. lenes) — pronounced with weak articulation.

Letters — printed or written symbols of an alphabet used in representing 
speech sounds.

Level tone — tone neutral in its communicative function, which, is used 
mostly in poetry .

Light — in phonetics this term, is equivalent to clear.

Lingual sounds - consonant sounds articulated with the help of the tongue.

Linguistic functions — in phonetics they are connected with phonemic, 
significant properties of sound, syllable, stress, and intonation.

Lip positions — different positions of lips, which change the articulation 
of sounds and their tamber.

Literary pronunciation: RP (received pronunciation) or Public School 
Pronunciation — the pronunciation of educated people.

Local differences — dialectal differences in the pronunciation of the same 
sounds or words.

Logical stress - the singling out of the word, which seems to be most 
important in the sentence.

Long vowels - the vowels having a relatively bigger length, or quantity 
in comparison with the short vowels.

Loose transition — articulation of two neighbouring sounds when the final 
stage of the first sound is not affected by the initial stage of the second sound.

Low Level tone — characterizes unstressed but prominent syllables 
of parenthetic groups or long tails.

Low vowels - vowel pronounced with the low position of the bulk 
of the tongue.

Lungs — the source of the air stream that makes it possible to produce 
sounds.

Medial sonants — sounds articulated with the air-passage through 
the middle part of the tongue. For example:/w, r, j/.

Mediolingual consonants - consonants produced with the front part of the 
tongue raised high to the hard palate. Mediolingual consonants are always palatal.

Melody - changes in the voice pitch in the process of speech.

Merging of stages — coincidence of the last stage of the first sound in the 
articulation of a word with the first stage of the second sound. 

Method of minimal pairs — the discovery of as many pairs of words 
as possible, that differ in one phoneme. It is based on the substitution of one: sound for another. 

Method of distinctive oppositions — this method enables to prove whether 
the phonetic difference is relevant or not.

Methods of phonetic analysis — different methods used in the study and 
investigation of different phonetic phenomena.

Metronome — a clockwork device with a moving audible indicator, which 
can be regulated to different speeds and used to mark equal periods. It is used 
in phonetics to teach rhythm.

Mid — neither high nor low position of the bulk of the tongue when it moves 
in the vertical direction.