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Modification of phonemes in speech

 

Every phoneme displays a vast range of variation in connected speech. Among the different types of variation we distinguish idiolectal, diaphonic and allophonic variation.

IdioIectaI variation embraces the individual peculiarities of articulating sounds, which are caused by the shape and form of the speaker's speech organs and by his articulatory habits. For instance, a speaker may mumble, or lisp (say "thish ish" for "this is"), or stammer (say "a f—f-f— fine d-d—d—day") .Idiolectai variation may cause a lot of difficulties in communication. At the same time it enables people to identify the speech of definite individuals.

Diaphonic variation affects the quality and quantity of particular phonemes. It is caused by concrete historical tendencies active in certain localities. For example, the diaphonic variation of / ǽ / involves significant changes in its length, because in some dialects / ǽ / is much longer than the standard sound. As to its quality, it ranges from a front open /ǽ / in the southern part of England to /a/ in Northern England. Diaphonic variants do not affect intelligibility of speech, yet they inform the listener about the speaker's origin (i.e. the region he comes from) and his social standing.

The listener easily notices both idiolectal and diaphonic variants, but it does not take him much time to 'tune in' to the speaker's manner of speech and understand him.

The less noticeable variation of phonemes is allophonic variation, which is conditioned by phonetic position and phonetic environment. It has already been mentioned that in connected speech the sounds undergo various modifications under the influence of neighbouring sounds and the intonation patterns they occur in. When viewed linguistically, it means that in a speech continuum there appear a variety of realizations of one and the same phoneme, its allophones. The number of allophones of each phoneme is, therefore, no less than the number of phonetic positions and environments in which the phoneme occurs.

 

The complete articulation of a speech sound - a vowel or a consonant - when said by itself in isolation consists of three stages:

1. The on-glide stage during which the articulating organs move to the position necessary for the articulation of a sound.
2. The hold stage, during which the articulating organs are kept in the position for a certain period of time.
3. The off-glide stage during which the articulating organs return to the position of rest.

For fexample, the on-glide of [t], pronounced in isolation, is the contact formed by the tip of the tongue placed against the teeth ridge. During the hold stage the air is compressed behind the closure; during the explosion stage, the organs forming the obstruction part rapidly and thе compressed air escapes abruptly.

Speech sounds are seldom said by themselves, they are used in combination with other sounds in connected speech. In the process of speech the articulatory organs are moving continuously and the sounds mostly merge one into another. The type of accommodation of speech organs to the transition from one articulation to another in each language depends on its specific phonetic laws. Very often the three stages of articulation are not preserved - the off-glide of the preceding sound serves as the on-glide of the following sound and these transitional stages between the holds tend in living oral speech to reduction or complete disappearance. For example, when a plosive is immediately followed by another plosive or by [ʧ] or [ʤ], there is only one explosion for the two plosives.T he closure of the organs of speech for the second consonant is made before the release or the first one. As a result the plosion of the first consonant is completely inaudible. In the word locked, for instance, the third stage (explosion) of [k] merges into the first stage (closing stage) of [t]. The consonant [k] has the first and the second stages, while the consonant [t] has only the second and the third stages.

In connected speech the sounds are subjected, in general, to two main types of influence: the reciprocal influence of neighbouring sounds and the influence on sounds by larger speech units and their elements, first of all - by the stress. The first group of processes is called the combinative changes, the second group - the positional changes.

The majority of changes of sounds in connected speech are combinative. The sounds are modified by other sounds near to them in the phonetic sequence. In this case they lose the clearness and some peculiarities of their articulation, gainipg, on the other hand, some new articulatory features. As a rule, it is the third stage (off-glide) of the articulation of the preceding sound and thе first stage (on-glide) of the following sound that undergo modifications.

As a result of mutual interaction of speech sounds in connected speech there is a number of phonetic processes such as assimilation, accommodation, elision and others.

 

 

ASSIMILATION

 

Assimilation is a process of alteration of speech sounds as a result of which one of the sounds becomes fully or partially similar to the adjoining sound. The word "assimilation" is an example of this phenomenon. This Latin word is composed of the preposition "ad" - to, and the adjective "similis" alike, similar, ad-similatio - assimilatio: [ds>ss] ([d] under the influence of the following [s] was changed to [s]).

The nature of assimilation is determinedly objective physical and physiological conditions. Assimilation exists in every language, but its laws and forms in each language depend on the historically formed articulatory tendencies, typical of every language, and specific phonemic structures.

Types of assimilation can be distinguished according to:

1. direction,
2. degree of completeness,
3. degree of stability.

  Assimilation can affect the place of obstruction and the active organ of speech; the work of the vocal cords; the position of the lips; the position of the soft palate; the manner of the release of plosive consonants.

Direction of Assimilation. The influence of the neighbouring sounds in English 
can act in a 

progressive, 

regressive or  

reciprocal (double) direction. 

When some articulatory features of the following sound are changed under the 
influence of the preceding sound, which remains unchanged, assimilation is called  
progressive. For example. 

1. The pronunciation of the plural suffix -s of nouns depends on the quality of the preceding consonant: it is pronounced as [z] after voiced consonants, eg pens [penz], calls [kɔ:lz] and as [s] after voiceless consonants, eg desks [desks], books [bʊks].
2. Within the words sandwich, grandmother, etc under the influence of [n] the consonant [d] changed into [n] and then disappeared, eg sandwich [^ˈsænnwɪʤ > ˈsænwɪʤ].

When the following sound influences the articulation of the preceding one assimilation is called regressive. For example, within the word width and in the word combination in them, the alveolar [d] and [n] become dental, before the interdental [θ] and [ð].

When two adjacent sounds influence each other assimilation is called reciprocal. For example:

in twice [t] is rounded under the influence of [w], [w] is partly divoiced under the influence of the voiceless [t].

Degree of Completeness. According to its degree, assimilation can be complete and incomplete. Assimilation is called complete in the case the two adjoining sounds become alike or merge into one. It always takes place when the two sounds differ only in one articulatory feature. We find cases of complete assimilation within words, eg cupboard ['kʌpbəd > ˈkʌbəd], and at the word junction in fluent speech, eg less shy [ˈlesʃaɪ >'leʃʃaɪ].

Assimilation is called incomplete when the likeness of the adjoining sounds is partial as the assimilated sound retains its major articulatory features. For example, the sonorants [w, 1, r] are partly devoiced when preceded by the voiceless fortis [p, t, k, s, f, θ] within words: sweet [swi:t], place [pleɪs], try [traɪ].

 

Degree of Stability. Many assimilatory phenomena of older stages in the development of the language have become obligatory in modern English, they may, or may not be reflected in spelling. Such changes which have taken place over a period of time within words are called historical, eg orchard (ort + yard) - [ˈɔ:tjəd  → 'ɔ:ʧəd], sj → ʃ [ˈpresjə → ˈpreʃə], zj → ʒ [ˈmezjə → ˈmeʒə], tj → ʧ [ˈkwestjən → ˈkwesʧən].

Assimilation which occurs in everyday speech in the present-day pronunciation is called living, eg [ˈletju ˈaʊt → ˈleʧu ˈaʊt]  

In modern language obligatory assimilations are special allophonic variants 
characteristic of the natives' speech. The use of the wrong allophone, though a non-phonemic mistake, amounts to mispronunciation and may be one of the causes of a foreign accent making understanding difficult. For example, a dental allophone of the alveolar [t] should be used when it is followed by interdental [θ] or [ð] as in eighth [eɪtθ]. 

Besides there are a lot of widely spread but non-obligatory cases of assimilation which can be traced mainly at word boundaries, eg

ten minutes [ˈtenˈmɪnɪts > ˈtemˈmɪnɪts], ten girls ['tenˈɡɜ:lz > ˈtеŋˈɡɜ:lz].

Non-obligatory assimilations are characteristic of fluent or careless speech and should be avoided by public speakers (lecturers, teachers, etc).

 

CONSONANT INFLUENCES CONSONANT

In Modern English it is mainly consonants that are assimilated. When the two adjacent sounds are consonants there occur most striking assimilative changes. Since the articulation of any speech sound differs according to the phonetic context we shall dwell only on considerable changes, especially those which present special difficulties for Russian learners.

1. Modification of the Place of Obstruction and the Active Organ of Speech. 
Assimilation may take place within a word and also at word boundaries. The following three important cases should be noticed:

(a) The alveolar allophones of [t, d, n, 1, s, z] are replaced by the dental variants when immediately followed by the interdental [θ] or [ð], eg

within a word: eighth, breadth, tenth;

at word boundaries: Put that down! Read this!, on the desk

(b) The post-alveolar [t] and [d] are heard before the post-alveolar sonorant [r], eg 
within a word: trip, true, trunk, dream, drink, dry;

at word boundaries: at rest, would read

(c) The bilabial nasal [m] or the alveolar nasal [n] become labio-dental under the influence of immediately following labiodental fricatives [f, v], eg

within a word: triumph, comfort, infant;

at word boundaries: come for me, ten forks

 

 

2. Changes in the Work of the Vocal Cords (Voicing or De-voicing). 
Progressive voicing or devoicing is common in English but is very rare in Russian.

(a) The sonorants [m, n, 1, w, r, j] are partially devoiced when preceded by voiceless consonants [s, p, t, k, f, θ, ʃ], eg

 

within words:
[m] - small	[w]
[n]   - sneer	M
[1] - slow, place, climb, fly
[j]  - stupid, tune, pure, few

[w]  - sweep, twilight, square,

[r] – spread, try, prey, throw, cream

 

At word boundaries the sonorants [1, r, w] are slightly voiced if with the adjacent words they form a phrasal word or a rhythmic group, eg at last, at rest.

(b) Contracted forms of the verbs "is" and "has" may retain voice or be devoiced depending on the preceding consonants, eg. that's right, Jack's done it, Bob's gone out.

(c) The assimilative voicing or devoicing of the possessive suffix -'s or -s’ the plural suffix                                                                                    (e)s of nouns and of the third person singular present indefinite of verbs depends on the quality of the preceding consonant. These suffixes are pronounced as:

[z] after all voiced consonants except [z] and [ʒ] and after all vowel sounds, eg girls [ɡɜ:lz], rooms [ru:mz], laws [lɔ:z], reads [ri:dz];

[s] after all voiceless consonants except [s] and [ʃ], eg Jack's [ʤæks], books [bʊks], writes [raɪts]; 

a separate syllable [ɪz] after [s, z] or [ʃ, ʤ], eg George's [ˈʤɔ:ʤɪz], dishes ['dɪʃɪz], boxes ['bɒksɪz].

(d) The assimilative voicing or devoicing of the suffix -ed of regular verbs also depends on the quality of the preceding consonant. The ending -ed is pronounced as [d] after all voiced consonants except [d] and after all vowel sounds, eg lived [lɪvd], played [pleɪd];

[t] after all voiceless consonants except [t], eg worked [wɜ:kt];

a separate syllable [ɪd] after [d,t], eg expected [ɪks'pektɪd].

In English regressive voicing or devoicing is found only in a few cases of historical assimilation within a compound word when the semantic independence of the first component is lost, eg

five pence [ˈfaɪfpens], five [faɪv]; gooseberry ['ɡu:zbəri], goose [ɡu:s]. 
Regressive voicing or devoicing may also take place in closely connected pairs of words, eg

I have to [aɪ ˈhæftu], I used to [aɪ ˈju:sttu], with thanks [wɪθˈθæŋks]

In English word sequences word final voiced plosives are not fully devoiced under the influence of the immediately following voiceless consonants, eg good chap ['ɡʊd 'ʧæp]; big case ['bɪɡ keɪs].

Neither are the word final voiceless consonants voiced under the influence of the immediately following vqiced consonants, eg white dress [ 'waɪt 'dres], this book [ 'ðɪs 'bʊk].

Typical mistakes of Russian learners lie in devoicing voiced consonants before voiceless ones and voicing voiceless consonants before voiced ones.

3. Changes in the Lip Position. Consonants followed by the sonorant [w] change their lip-position. They become lip-rounded in anticipation of [w], eg twinkle, quite, swan, language.
4. Changes in the Position of the Soft Palate. Nasal consonants may influence the adjacent plosives. This type of assimilation is not typical of English. Sometimes [d] changes into [n] under the influence of the preceding [n], eg handsome ['hændsəm > 'hænnsəm > 'hænsm]; handmade I'hænmeɪd].
5. Changes in the Manner of the Release of Plosive Consonants. English plosives do not always have the third stage consisting of a sudden oral release of air. The main variants are:

(a) Incomplete plosion.

In the clusters of two plosives [pp, pb, bb, bp, tt, td, dd, dt, tʧ, tʤ, dʧ, dʤ;, kk, kɡ,  ɡɡ, ɡk] where the position of the organs of speech is the same for both consonants, there is no separation of the organs of speech between the two plosives. The hold stage is prolonged from the beginning of the first consonant until the release of the second. The effect is that of a single plosive pronounced with very long hold. In such clusters the first stop has no plosion either in English or in Russian, eg

within a word: accommodation; attraction; bookcase;

at word boundaries: lamp post; what time; went down; that child, that joke; big cat; good chance.

In a cluster of two plosives or of a plosive and an affricate the closure of the organs of speech for the second plosive is made before the release of the first. So there is only one explosion for the two plosives. The first plosive is incomplete, eg

within a word: talked; object; lecture;

at word boundaries: good girl; good book; hot bottle.

If you do make two explosions in English it will not cause misunderstanding, but it will sound un-English.

(b) Nasal plosion.

When a plosive is followed by the syllabic [n] or [m] it has no release of its own, the so-called 'nasal' plosion is produced. In such sequences the closure for the plosive is made normally, but the release is produced not by a removal of the oral closure, which is retained, but by the lowering of the soft palate, which allows the compressed air to escape through the nasal cavity to form the nasal consonant, eg

within a word: happen, shipmate, submarine, subnormal, button;

at word boundaries: stop moaning, escape noisily, sub man, sob noisily.

(c) Lateral plosion.

In the sequences of a plosive immediately followed by [1] the closure produced for the plosive is not released till after [1], Before [1] the release is made by a sudden lowering of the sides of the tongue, and the air escapes along the sides of the tongue with lateral plosion, eg please, cattle, black, candle.

 

 

ACCOMMODATION

 

When a consonant is modified under the influence of an adjacent vowel or vice-versa this phenomenon is called adaptation or accommodation, eg

1. slight degree of nasalization of vowels preceded or followed by nasal sonorants (never, man);
2. positional length of vowels (knee – need – neat)
3. labialization in English (no lip protrusion) and Russian involves the lip rounding (Paul – Пол, tool – Тула, pull – пуля, cool – куль)

ELISION

When one of the neighbouring sounds is not realized in rapid or careless speech this process is called elision.

Elision can be historical and contemporary.

The reduction of some consonant clusters was established long ago (historical elision): walk /wɔ:k/, castle /kɑ:sl/

1.The initial [w, k, ɡ] may be dropped, eg write, know, gnat.

2. The medial [t] or [d] are dropped in a cluster of three consonants, eg listen [ lɪsn], soften [sɒfn], Wednesday ['wenzdi].
3. The final [b] is dropped in the cluster [mb], eg lamb [læm], dumb [dʌm].

 

In other cases of recent formation the elided forms are typical only of rapid colloquial speech. In the following examples the elided sound is still pronounced in careful, precise speech, cf often [ɒfn] or ['ɒftən).

In present-day English the reduction of clusters continues to take place.

stop+stop+consonant

The plosives [t] or [d] in the clusters [-st, -ft, -ft, -nd, -ld, -zd, -ʒd, -vd] in final position when followed by a word with an initial consonant are often reduced in rapid speech, eg last time ['lɑ:s ^ˈtaɪm], mashed potatoes ['mæʃ pə'teɪtəʊz], next day ['neks 'deɪ], old man [əʊl 'mæn].

Word final clusters of plosives or affricates + [t] or [d] [-pt, -kt, -tt, -bd. -ʤd] may lose the final alveolar plosive when the following word begins with a consonant, eg kept quiet ['kep 'kwaɪət], lagged behind ['læɡ bɪ'haɪnd].

The alveolar [t] of the negative -n't is often reduced before a consonant, eg You mustn't do it [ju mʌsn du: it].

When [t] or [d] occur between two other plosives they are never heard, eg locked gate [ˈlɒk 'ɡeɪt], strict teacher ['strɪk 'ti:ʧə].

[h] may be dropped in the following monosyllables when non-initial and unstressed: have, has, had; he, him, his, her; who,     eg

Tell him he is wanted        [ˈtel ɪm ɪz wɒntɪd] 
but: He's wanted [hiz ˈwɒntɪd]

 

 

VOWEL  REDUCTION

 

One of the wide-spread sound changes is vowel reduction. Reduction is qualitative or quantitative weakening of vowels in unstressed positions. These changes of vowels are determined by a number of factors, such as the position of the vowel in a word, accentual structure, tempo of speech, rhythm etc.

When the vowel loses its quality, or colour, reduction is called qualitative, eg [mæn - ˈspɔ:tsmən].

When the vowel loses its quantity, in other words it shortens its length, reduction is called quantitative, eg [ˈfɔ:ˌkɑ‧st - ˌfɔ‧ˈkɑ:st].