Шпаргалка по "Английскому языку"

STANDARD  ENGLISH  PRONUNCIATION

 

English is the national language of Great Britain, the USA, Australia, New Zealand and the greater part of Canada. It is native to many who live in India, Israel, Malta and Ceylon.

English was originally spoken in England and south-eastern Scotland. Then it was introduced into the greater part of Scotland and southern Ireland. In the 17^th and 18^th centuries it was brought to North America. Later in the 18^th and 19^th centuries English was exported to Australia, New Zealand and South Africa owing to the colonial expansion.

English became wide-spread in Wales at about the same time. Welsh English is very similar to southern English. Then in the 20^th century American English began to spread in Canada, Latin America, on the Bermudas, and in other parts of the world. Thus nowadays two main types of English are spoken in the English-speaking world: English English and American English.

According to British dialectologists (P. Trudgill, J. Hannah and others) the following variants of English are referred to the English-based group: English English, Welsh English, Australian English, New Zealand English; to the American-based group: United States English, Canadian English.

Scottish English and Irish English fall somewhere between the two being somewhat by themselves, though some phoneticians combine English English, Welsh English, Scottish  English and Irish English into the British English subgroup on the ground of political, geographical, cultural and psychological unity.

British English is spoken in Australia, New Zealand, South Africa. It is traditionally taught in Europe and Russia but on the whole American English is much more widely spread in the world.

In every country there exists national standard of pronunciation governed by orthoepic norm.

In Great Britain it is RP (Received Pronunciation), in the USA – GA (General American or American Network English), in Canada – GenCan (General Canadian), in Australia – GenAus (General Australian). It is the pronunciation of the educated circles, it is used by radio, television.

It has been long believed that RP is a social marker, a prestige accent of an Englishman. In the 19^th century “received” was understood in the sense of “accepted in the best society”. The speech of aristocracy and the court phonetically was that of the London area. Then it lost its local characteristics and was finally fixed as a ruling-class accent, often referred to as Queen’s English. It became the voice of authority and power. It was also the accent taught at public schools. With the spread of education cultured people not belonging to the upper classes were eager to modify their accent in the direction of social standard.

   Accents usually tell us where a person is from. RP tells us only about a person’s social and educational background. So RP is a genuinely regionless accent within Britain, it means if speakers have it you cannot tell which area of Britain they come from. As it was regionally neutral accent and was thought to be more easily understood than any regional accent it was adopted by the BBC when radio broadcasting began in the 1920-s.

RP of English was first described in 1917-1918 by Daniel Jones, founder of the department of phonetics and linguistics at University College London. RP is no longer as widely used today as it was about 50 years ago. It is still the standard accent of the Royal Family, Parliament, the Church of England, the High Court and other national institutions. It is fair to mention, however, that only 3-5 per cent of the population of England speak RP. RP is no longer the prestige accent of a social elite. It is best described as an educated accent. Though “accents” would be more precise for there are several varieties of RP. In “An Introduction to the Pronunciation of English” professor A.C. Gimson suggested that it’s convenient to distinguish 3 main types of RP:

1. the Conservative RP – used by the older generation;
2. the General RP – most commonly in use by the BBC news-readers;
3. the Advanced RP – mainly used by young people of exclusive social groups (mostly of the upper classes.

 

All these types are characterized by certain differences in pronunciation.

E.g.    tyre   Conservative RP   /taɪə/       (triphthong)

General RP  /taə/          (diphthong)

Advanced RP  /ta:/     (monophthong)

In the latest addition of Gimson’s work RP is subdivided into General RP, Refined RP, Regional RP.

Refined RP is for upper classes.

Most educated people have developed an accent which is a mixture of RP and various regional characteristics (so called Modified RP).

But RP continues to retain considerable status. It has long been the chief accent taught to foreigners who wished to learn a British model and is thus widely used abroad by far more people than have it as a mother tongue accent in the UK.

RP is pronunciation of Standard English based on the speech of educated speakers of southern England. It is often recognized as a model for foreign learners.

English comprises many accents and dialects. One of the most thoroughly described of the uneducated accents of English is cockney.

Cockney is the speech of working class area of London.

RP	Cockney	RP	Cockney
Vowels
[æ]	[e] or [eI]	bag [bæg]	[beg],    [beIg]
[L]	[æI]	blood [blLd]	[blæId]
[I]	[i:]	city [¢sItI]	[¢sIti:]
[eI]	[æI] or [aI]	lady [¢leIdI]	[¢læIdi:], [¢laIdi:]
Consonants
[h]	[Æ]	is he?	[Iz i:]
[q]	[f]	thin [qIn]	[fIn]
[l]	[v]	milk [mIlk]	[mIvk]
[h]	[n]	dancing [¢da:nsIh]	[da:nsIn]

 

Some characteristic features of English dialects:

Northern dialect: [ʊ] instead of [ʌ] – love [lʊv], pronunciation of [r] here, beer.

Scottish – no differentiation between long [u:] and short [ʊ] just [u] – [tuk], [buk], no differentiation between [æ] and [a:], only [a] – bad [bad], bath [baθ].

Irish – r is always pronounced [river], [l] is always palatalized.

At the beginning of the 1980-s there appeared a new tendency in the English pronunciation – Estuary English. This term was introduced by David Rosewarne who at that time was a post graduate of applied linguistics in the University of London.

Nowadays many linguists study this phenomenon: David Crystal, John Wells (the head of the Department of Phonetics and Linguistics at University College London), etc.

Some features of Estuary English are accepted in RP:

1. Decline of weak [ɪ]

e.g.: visibility [vɪzɪˈbɪlɪti]

today it’s pronounced as [vɪzəˈbɪləti]

2. Glottalling – the switch from an alveolar articulation to a glottal articulation of [t] sound.

e.g.: football [fʊtbɔ:l] → [fʊʔbɔ:l]

3. l- vocalization when the dark [l] looses its alveolar lateral nature and becomes a vowel of the [o] or [ʊ]. This sign [o] symbolizes the sound very like what most speakers of English produce for [w] sound:

e.g.: [milk] → [mɪok]

4. Intrusive [r] – insertion of [r] at the end of the word ending in a non-high vowel where the next word begins with a vowel

the idea [r] of it

5. Yod coalescence – the coalescence of an alveolar plosive and the following palatal sound – the yod to produce an affricate.

e.g.: constitute – [ˈkɒnstɪʧu:t]

  did you – [dɪʤu:]

  situation – [ˌsɪʧuˈeɪʃn]

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

THE ORTHOEPIC NORM

 

There exist numerous varieties of pronunciation in any language, the English language as well. The pronunciation of almost every locality in the British Isles has peculiar features that distinguish it from the pronunciation of other localities. Besides, pronunciation is socially influenced. It reflects class distinctions, education and upbringing. The varieties that are spoken by a socially limited number of people and used only in certain localities are called dialects. There are therefore local and dialects. Moreover, there are innumerable individual differences, called idiolectal differences. At the same time all these varieties have much more in common that what differentiates them. They are varieties of one and the same language, the English language, which is a means of communication for all those who speak it.

Dialects have some peculiarities in pronunciation, vocabulary and grammatical structure. Every dialectal pronunciation is characterized by features that are common to all the other dialects of the language, and by a number of specific peculiarities of its own, that set it apart from all the other dialects. Due to mass media (radio, TV, cinema), the increased mobility of the population, concentration of the population in the cities, the dialectal differences are becoming less marked. That, of course, does not mean that the pronunciation of a Manchester dialect speaker does not differ from the pronunciation of a London dialect speaker. Among the most well—known dialectsone should mention Cockney (spoken by the less educated part of the Londoners) , Geordie (heard in Newcastle— on— Tyne), Scouse (the Liverpool dialect), Cornish dialect (in Cornwall) and others.

Dialect speakers are, as a rule, the less educated part of the population. With the more educated people pronunciation generally tends to conform to a particular standard. But the English language would lose a lot if its dialects disappeared. Dialects enrich the language and make it more lively and fresh. They stimulate the development of language, supply it with new lexical and syntactic means, cause modifications in its phonetic system.

In present—day English the number of local dialects is being reduced to a fewer, more or less general, regional types. Every regional type of pronunciation is characterized by features that are common to all the dialects used in the region. The regional types of pronunciation, in their turn, are marked one from another by a number of pecularities specific to each of them. In British English phoneticians generally distinguish three main regional types of pronunciation: Southern, Northern and Scottish regional types of English pronunciation. Besides, there may by non—regional type of pronunciation that is not native to any particular locality in the country.

One of the types of pronunciation, generally the one that is spoken by the educated people in the capital, is recognized as the orthoepic norm.

The orthoepic norm of a language is the standard pronunciation adopted by native speakers as the right and proper way of speaking. It comprises the variants of pronunciation of vocabulary units and prosodic patterns which reflect the main tendencies in pronunciation that exist in the language. It is used by the most educated part of the population.

The orthoepic norm is based on the variants of pronunciation that are widely used in actual speech, that reflect the main phonetic tendencies, and that are considered to be acceptable by the educated. Thus, wide currency, conformity to the main phonetic tendencies and social acceptability are the three main conditions that are necessary for a variety of pronunciation to be accepted as the norm.

Though attempts are generally made to preserve the norm as it is, new pronunciations which are in common use gradually become 'acceptable' and are included into the norm. On the other hand, some of the pronunciations, which had been acceptable, fall out of use, are labelled as 'old—fashioned' and are, consequently, excluded from the norm. Or again, in the early twentieth century "chemist" / 'kemɪst/, "chemistry" /'kemɪstri/ were pronounced as /kɪmɪst/, /'kɪmɪstri/, these variants of pronunciation have fallen out of use.

Besides, the orthoepic norm always includes a set of stylistic variants of pronunciation which are 'acceptable' only in certain circumstances.

The point is that the spoken language exists in different varieties, such as familiar conversational style, official style, etc. And there are phonetic phenomena and variants of pronunciation that are acceptable in some styles, but are not appropriate in others. For example, the colloquial /kɒz/or /kəz/ for "because" are common in rapid familiar conversation, but are unacceptable in a public speech.

Thus, the orthoepic norm comprises well—established (or codified) variants of pronunciation acceptable in all the varieties of speech, and it also includes stylistic variants that are acceptable only in some varieties of speech in case they do not violate the main phonetic tendencies. Consequently, the orthoepic norm includes a number of stylistic norms, none of which can be considered "neutral" and "acceptable" in all circumstances.

The pronouncing dictionaries record the well—established pronunciations as first variants. The less frequent variants of pronunciation are generally recorded as secondary variants.

Since the orthoepic norm is ever changing and developing, from time to time the pronouncing dictionaries have to be revised and reset. If the pronunciations entered as secondary variants appear to become commoner in the speech of the cultured people, the order of recording the variants is rearranged.

For example, in the 1937 edition of Everyman's English Pronuncing Dictionary by D.Jones the pronunciations of the following words were indicated in such an order: "again" — /ə'ɡeɪn— ə'ɡen/.

In connected speech the sound structures of words are greatly modified under the influence of rhythm, tempo and utterance stress. But the pronouncing dictionaries do not and cannot reflect all these variants, though they are not regarded as deviations (or departures) from the norm.

Among the native speakers there is a certain amount of tolerance in the matter of the sound structure of words. W.Ripman is right when he says: "It might be thought that reference to a dictionary would be sufficient to settle disputed points. However, it may be said that no dictionary. can be implicitty trusted in matters of pronunciation".

The dictionaries therefore register the codified norm (the model pronunciations) and only partly reflect the actual pronunciation in general use.

So far we have considered only variants of pronunciation of vocabulary units, which can be recorded in dictionaries. But the orthoepic norm involves prosodic phenomena as well. The intonation of a speaker may also be acceptable or unacceptable. There are pitch patterns in general use, which are not tinged with any regional peculiarities and which give no indication of who the speaker is and where he comes from. As we examine the prosodic features of speech we realize that there is a generally—agreed norm of budness and a recognized norm of tempo which cultured speakers do not deviate from. But there are certain pitch patterns that give a local accent to speech. For example, short and sharp tones, stoccato delivery occur more frequently in the speech of Welshmen. Moreover, phoneticians note that certain tones occur more frequently in the speech of one sex and are less frequently used by the other sex. Thus, R.Kingdon indicates that the falling—rising and the rising—falling-rising tones are great favourites with women speakers.

Therefore, there is a prosodic norm in every language which comprises well-established prosodic patterns, used in educated speech, and their stylistic variants, current in particular styles of pronunciation. Though it cannot be recorded by pronouncing dictionaries, its importance is obvious: even minor deviations from the prosodic norm are perceived as either a local accent or a foreign accent.

The English prosodic norm is rather well described . As for its stylistic variants, they are not as yet well established and have become the object of a number of phonetic investigations. The prosodic norm is an important component of the orthoepic norm.

It should be emphasized, that the orthoepic norm is not constant and fixed for all centuries and generations. Variation of the orthoepic norm is a natural objective phenomenon, which reflects the development of language.

The orthoepic norm is not isolated from non-standard pronunciations that are in current use. The non-standard prosodic patterns and regional variants of pronunciation constantly influence the orthoepic norm. It is a well—known fact that most of the phonetic changes first occur among the less educated before they are recognized as acceptable. Therefore, the main factors that condition variation of the orthoepic norm are social, territorial and stylistic factors.

It should also be mentioned that British English pronunciation is exposed to external influence. On the British television and screen there is a lot of American speech which works against the standardization of the pronunciation, especially with the younger generation. On the other hand, the orthoepic norm influences then on—standard types of pronunciations. The spread of education and mass media encourage to some extent a standardized pronunciation.

These are but a few examples which serve as an illustration of the constant interaction of the orthoepic norm with non-standard pronunciation.

 

PRONUNCIATION VARIETIES OF BRITISH ENGLISH

 

It is generally considered that the orthoepic norm of British English is "Received Pronunciation" (RP), though, as many scholars state, it is not the only variety of British English pronunciation that is recognized as the orthoepic norm in present—day Britain.

Received Pronunciation (RP) was accepted as the phonetic norm of English about a century ago. It is mainly based on the Southern English regional type of pronunciation, but it has developed its own features which have given it a non-regional character, i.e. there is no region in Britain to which it is native. RP is spoken all over Britain by a comparatively small number of Englishmen who have had the most privileged education in the country - public school education, (public schools being the best and most expensive fee-paying schools in the country). RP is not taught at these schools, "it is absorbed automatically by the pupils", for children are sent to live thereat the age of eleven when pronunciation is most flexible. The children, isolated in the school from their parents and other children, contact only with their teachers and schoolmates, and very soon acquire the so-called "public school accent", or RP. As almost all the leading positions in the Cabinet, the armed forces, the judiciary are occupied by those who have had public school education, RP is actually a social standard pronunciation of English. It is often referred to as the 'prestige accent'.

Though RP is carefully preserved by the public schools and the privileged class in England, the RP of today differs in some respects from the former refined RP used half a century ago. A. Gimson claims that the exclusive purity of the classic RP has been diluted, as some features of regional types of speech are "received" now, though some 50 years ago those features were considered to be regional, non—RP.

This change is obvious from the following example. In the 30s the vowel in the first weak syllable of such words as "November" had three possible pronunciations — the recommended /ou/ (/nou'vembə/), shortened monophthongal form/o/ (/no'vembə/), or, in rapid speech,/ə/ (/nə'vembə /). Now, there is a tendency to pronounce/əʊ/ in careful speech (/nəʊ'vembə /), and /ə/ in rapid speech (/nə 'vembə /).

S.Potter, an English linguist, states on this account: "Increasing numbers of young people pronounce home as /hзvrm/ centralizing the initial element of this narrow diphthong. This is a prominent and outstanding change because it is so widespread in all classes of society. There are clear indications that /hзvm/, not /hovm/, will be the pronunciation of tomorrow"

RP has been investigated and described more thoroughly than any other type of English pronunciation. It was excellently described in the works of D.Jones and his Everyman's English Pronouncing Dictionary is still the most reliable reference book on RP. Many features of RP have been studied in the Soviet Union and other countries. That is why it is RP, or Southern English Pronunciation, that is often accepted as the teaching standard in many countries where English is taught as a foreign language.