Шпаргалка по "Теории и практике перевода"

  ex. After all they all have day jobs. Not so Seed. – Зрештою, у них у всіх є робота, окрім Сіда. (the 2nd sentence is incomplete)

       Your presence at the meeting is not necessary. Nor is it desirable. – Ваша присутність на зустрічі є необов’язковою і навіть небажаною.

 

In oral translation, especially synchronized translation, the unit of translation is usually represented by a sense group (a group of words, which expresses the main idea) or a sentence, especially if elements important for understanding are located at the end of the sentence.

  ex. Mediators from 3 west African ECOWAS nations planned today to visit rebels in Ivory Coast as France flew in 70 more soldiers to assist the Ivorian government. – Сьогодні посередники від 3 африканських країн-членів ЕКОВАС планували зустрітися з повстанцями в Кот-д’Івуарі. В той час як Франція відрядила до країни ще 70 військових на допомогу івуарійському урядові.

(This sentence represents 2 units of translation, since it consists of 2 sence groups. The 1st unit of tr. is ..., the 2nd - …)

 

 

APPROACH # 2 (= LEVELS OF TRANSLATION)

 

The unit of translation is the smallest SL unit which is translated as a whole. It means that in the TLT it is impossible to discover TL units reproducing the meaning of the constituents, which make up the SL unit.

  ex. pretty woman – красунечка (не можна віднайти безпосереднього відбиття лексичних одиниць)

      help yourself – пригощайтеся (translated as a whole)

Each unit of translation belongs to a certain language level. So, every translation is performed at a definite language level.

 

The phoneme level

The phoneme – is a speech sound, the smallest 1-facet language unit, it has a form but has no meaning. This unit of translation is mainly relevant to the translation of proper names, geographical names, internationalisms, units of specific national lexicon and neologisms.

   Bush – Буш (а не Кущ), гривня – hryvnia, dollar – долар,

   computer – комп’ютер, вареники – varenyky

 

The morpheme level

The morpheme – is the smallest indivisible 2-facet language unit (has both form and meaning). It is the smallest sense unit.

   superprofit – надприбуток, cloudless – безхмарний

 

The word level

The word – is the basic 2-facet language unit. The word is the smallest independent sense unit. Words are divisible (for morphemes).

   blackboard – дошка ( - if translated at a word level, if translated as чорна дошка – it is a morpheme level)

   strawberry – полуниця, dog – собака

 

The word-combination level

The word-combination – is the largest 2-facet lexical unit comprising more that 1 word.

   first night – прем’єра

   to come up roses – чудово виходити

 

The sentence level

The sentence – a 2-facet speech unit which conveys a more or less complete thought.The sentence may express a statement,a command or a question.

   Every dark cloud has a silver lining. – Немає лиха без добра.

  A cat may look at a king. – Дивитися не заборонено.

   Будь здоров! – Bless you!

 

The text level

The text – is the largest 2-facet language unit, consisting of sentences bound by the same idea. This unit of translation may function in poetry.

 

 

13. EQUIVALENCE IN TRANSLATION (TRANSLATION EQUIVALENCE)

 

Translation equivalence – is a measure of semantic similarity between the SLT and TLT. The degree of semantic similarity between the texts involved in the process of translation may vary /’veeri/. The equivalence between the SLT and TLT may be based on the reproduction of different parts of the ST contents. So, several types of translation equivalents can be distinguished:

 

1st type of Translation Equivalence implies retention (утримання, збереження) in the translation of the purport (=the purpose, the general intent, the intention) of communication.

Ex. there is some chemistry between us that doesn’t mix –  буває, що люди не сходяться характерами,

      velvet paws hide sharp claws – м’яко стелять, твердо спати

A dissimilarity of language units is accompanied by the absence of any obvious logical link between the SLT and TLT. But the information retained in the translation (=the purport of com.) is enough to ensure an adequate communication. (It is the lowest type/level – only the purport of communication is preserved).

 

2nd type of TE implies retention in the tr.of the purport of communication and the identification of the situation (=there are 2 meaningful components) Ex. he answered the phone – він підняв слухавку

Most of the words and syntactical structures of the original have no direct correspondences in the translation. But the SLT and TLT are based on the same situation which is described differently.

 

3rd type of TE implies retention in the translation of the purport of communication, the identification of the situation and the method of describing the situation. The translation retains the same basic notions as the original. The translation may be viewed as a semantic paraphrase of the original which preserves its basic notions and allows their free reshuffle/rearrangement in the sentence.

Ex. scrubbing makes me bad-tempered – від миття підлоги в мене псується настрій

 

4th type of TE implies retention in the translation of the purport of communication, the identification of the situation, the method of describing the situation and (the invariant meaning of) the syntactical structure.

Ex. I don’t think that I need to convince you – Не бачу необхідності переконувати тебе (Sentences look dif but syntactic structure is the same,

                                                                                                                          here the Eng. subordinate object clause corresponds to the Ukr.object)

      He was sitting with his arms crossed – Він сидів склавши руки (The Propositional Nominative Participial Construction – with his arms crossed

                                                                                                               corresponds to the adverbial modifier – склавши руки in the Ukr. sentence)

 

5th type of TE implies retention in the translation of the purport of communication, the identification of the situation, the method of describing the situation, invariant meaning of the syntactical structure and word semantics (lexical meaning of words). (It is the highest type/level of TE)

Ex. The president signed a very important agreement – Президент підписав дуже важливу угоду.

 

Every translation can be regarded as belonging to a certain type of translation equivalence. Since each subsequent type of translation equivalence implies a higher degree of semantic similarity, every translation is performed at a certain level of translation equivalence. The level hierarchy doesn’t imply the idea of disapprobation and approbation because a good translation can be made at any level of translation equivalence.

 

 

14. TRANSLATION EQUIVALENTS

 

Since language units often function in their accepted meanings, many SL units have regular equivalents in the TL.

Regular equivalents are divided into permanent and non-permanent (variable).

 

Some SL units have permanent equivalents, it means there is a one-to-one correspondence between such units and their equivalents in the TL.

(ex. phoneme - фонема). This type of correspondence is found with proper and geographical names, technical terms and similar words whose meaning is more or less independent of any context.

   Ex. London – Лондон, Україна – Ukraine

Other SL units may have several equivalents each, they are called non-permanent equivalents. This type of one-to-many correspondence is usual for the most regular equivalents. The existence of non-permanent equivalents implies the necessity of selecting one of them in the process of translation.

   Ex. execution – виконання, страта  (here the word execution has at least two non-permanent equivalents – виконання, страта)

 

According to the type of the language units involved, regular equivalents are divided into:  

Lexical - it can be both permanent and non-permanent

Ex. Мазепа – Mazepa, the Ukr. word Мазепа has a permanent equivalent in the Eng. language - Mazepa)

The choice of a non-permanent equivalent depends on the context in which the SL unit is used in the SLT. There are 2 types of context:

 

1. The linguistic context is made up by the other SL units in the SLT.

Ex. політика – politics, policy  (The Ukr.word ‘політика’ is translated as ‘policy’ – in the context ‘зовнішня політика’ – ‘foreign policy’,

                                                                                                                        ‘politics’ – in the context ‘іти в політику’ –‘ to go to politics’)

 

2. The situational context is made up by circumstances under which the SLT was produced.

Ex. he gave me a ring – він подзвонив/зателефонував мені  або  він подарував мені каблучку

 

Phraseological units also have permanent and non-permanent equivalents.

Permanent equivalents may be based on the same image or different images.

Ex. to cross the Rubicon – and the Ukr.equivalent перейти Рубікон (is an example of the phraseological units based on the same image)

      to sink or swim – пан або пропав (is an example of the phraseological units based on the different images)

Non-permanent equivalents: Ex.velvet paws hide sharp claws – м’яко стелять, твердо спати; слова ласкаві, думки лукаві; зовнішність оманлива

 

There are practically no permanent grammatical equivalents. Non-permanent equivalents in the sphere of grammar are usually analogous forms or different forms with similar meaning.

Ex. He was a guest of honor at the reception given by the embassy – Він був почесним гостем на прийомі влаштованому в посольстві

      (here the Eng. Participle given may be translated as a Ukr. Participle влаштований or який було влаштовано – a subordinate attributive clause ?)

The use of occasional equivalents is much more common in grammar than in vocabulary. 

Ex. He was a guest of honor at the reception given by the embassy – Він був почесним гостем на прийомі в посольстві.

 

 

15. TRANSLATION OF EQUIVALENT-LACKING UNITS

 

Since language units often function in their accepted meanings, many SL units have regular equivalents in the TL. A number of SL units have no regular equivalents in the TL. The absence of regular equivalents makes the translator resort to occasional equivalents.

 

Equivalent-lacking words may be translated in one of the following ways:

 

1. by imitating the form of a SL word/word group through transcription, transliteration or loan translation. In the course of time such occasional formations may get the status of regular equivalents:

Ex. impeachment – імпічмент ( transcription), inauguration – інавгурація (transliteration), brain wash – промивка мізків (loan translation)

 

2. by using approximate substitutes, i.e. TL words with similar meaning which is extended to convey some additional information

Ex. drug store – аптека (drug store sells medicine as well as other goods, so the choice of the variant depends on the context)

 

3. using lexical transformations (ex. The word “exposure” is equivalent-lacking in the meaning of “the medical condition caused when smb has been exposed to severe weather conditions”, so its meaning is modulated in the process of translation. Accordingly the sentence “He died of exposure” may be translated as “Він помер від переохолодження/сонячного удару”)

   or the same word drugstore may be translated as крамниця, so its meaning may be generalized.

4. by using an explanation (landslide – переконлива перемога на виборах, перемога зі значним відривом)

 

Equivalent-lacking phraseological units are translated in one of the following ways:

1. by word-for word translation  (ex. people who live in glass shouldn’t throw stones – людям, які живуть у склі краще не кидати каміння)
2. by explaining their figurative meaning  (ex. to dine with duke Humphrey – залишитись без обіду, white elephant – подарунок, який замість задоволення приносить багато клопоту)

 

Equivalent-lacking grammatical units are translated in one of the following ways:

 

1. by using zero translations – the meaning of an equivalent-lacking unit is not rendered because it is practically identical to the meaning of some other SL units

Ex. By that time he had already left – До того часу він вже поїхав  (Here the Past Perf. Tense is equivalent-lacking, the meaning of the Past Perf.

      Tense (priority - попередність) is not conveyed by the verb left, because it is identical to the word “already” and “by that time”).

 

2. by using approximate translations – TL units with similar meaning

Ex. I heard him playing the piano – Я чув як він грав на піаніно (Here a complex object clause – him playing corresponds to a subordinate object

                                                                                                         clause – як він грав (Objective Participial Construction)

 

3. by using grammatical transformations

Ex. Your presence is not obligatory. Nor is it desirable – Ваша присутність є необов’язковою та навіть небажаною (it represents integration)

 

 

16-18. MODELS OF TRANSLATION

 

A model is a conventional representation of the translating process describing mental operations by which the ST or some part of it may be translated, irrespective of whether these operations are actually performed by the translator.

Translation models can be oriented either toward the situation reflected in the ST or toward the meaningful components of the ST. Every translation model postulates the existence of some interlingual level of equivalence.

 

The situational (referential) model is based on the identity of the situations described in the original text and in the translation. The intermediate level is extralinguistic. The process of translating consists of two stages:

1. the break-through to the situation (the translator understands the actual situation described in the ST);
2. the description of this situation in the TL (the translator says the same thing in the TL).

  Wet paint. – Обережно, пофарбовано.  Keep off the grass. – По газонах не ходити.

    Make yourself at home. – Почувайтеся як вдома.

 

The transformational model is based on the identity of nuclear structures in the SL and the TL. The immediate level is linguistic (structural). The model postulates the existence of nuclear structures common to the SL and the TL. The process of translating consists of three stages:

1. the stage of analysis (the transformation of the original structures into the nuclear structures within the SL);
2. the stage of translation proper (the replacement of the SL nuclear structures with the equivalent nuclear structures in the TL);
3. the stage of synthesis (the development of the TL nuclear structures into the terminal structures in the TL).

 

1. They heard a bomb explode. – A bomb exploded. They heard.
2. A bomb exploded. – Бомба вибухнула. They heard. – Вони чули (почули).
3. Бомба вибухнула. Вони чули (почули). – Вони (по)чули, як вибухнула бомба. Вони почули вибух бомби.

 

The semantic model is based on the identity of basic notions in the SL and TL. The intermediate level is linguistic (semantic). The model postulates the existence of deep semantic categories common to the SL and the TL. The process of translating consists of three stages:

1. the stage of analysis (the reduction of the original semantic units to the basic semantic categories within the SL);
2. the stage of translation proper (the replacement of the SL basic semantic categories with the equivalent basic semantic categories in the TL);
3. the stage of synthesis (the development of the TL basic semantic categories into the terminal notions in the TL).

 

1.   студент – а) чоловічої статі, а не жіночої (на відміну від студентка)

                           б) навчається, а не навчає (на  відміну від викладач)

                           в) навчається у ВНЗ, а не в школі (на відміну від учень)

                           д) одна особа, а не множина (на  відміну від студенти)

2.    а) чоловічої статі, а не жіночої (на відміну від студентка) – a male (not relevant)

      б) навчається, а не навчає (на відміну від викладач) – studies

      в) навчається у ВНЗ, а не в школі (на відміну від учень) – goes to college or university

      д) одна особа, а не множина (на відміну від студенти) – one person

3.   a person who is studying at a university or college - student

 

 

 

19. ROMANIZATION OF THE UKRAINIAN ALPHABET

 

Romanization – is the representation of a word or language with Roman (Latin) alphabet or a system for doing so.

Romanization includes 2 methods: transcription and transliteration.

• Transcription  – is the substitution of sounds in the process of translation.
• Transliteration – is the substitution of letters in the process of translation.

In most cases Romanization involves a compromise between transcription and transliteration.

 

There are 2 official systems of Romanization in Ukraine:

I. The Ukrainian National Transliteration System – was adopted by the Ukrainian Legal Terminology Commission on the 19th of April 1996.

This system is based on English orthography (only English letters) and is widely used to represent Ukrainian geographical names, which were romanized from Russian before Ukrainian independence in 1991.

 

Provisions:

1. The use of the approved system is binding for the transliteration of Ukrainian names into English in official and legislative acts.

 

2. This system itself is not mandatory for the transliteration of foreign names into Ukrainian (it has only one-way direction Ukr-Eng).

 

3. Transliteration must be performed directly between Ukrainian and English without the use of any intermediary languages

ex. Odessa (from Russian) – Odesa (from Ukrainian)

 

4. This system allows a number of simplifications:

• softening and apostrophe marks (ь/’) may be omitted in transliteration, except for   ьо= ‘o / ьі= ‘i

• Ukrainian letters which correspond to 2 Latin letters, if doubled in Ukrainian, may be transliterated as 1 Ukrainian letter

ex. Zaporizhzhya – Zaporizhya

 

5. The system includes a short list of official spellings:

Ukraine, Crimea (without the, not Ukrayina)

the Black Sea, the Sea of Azov

 

6. In certain cases, traditional forms may be given in parentheses () after the official variants:

ex. The traditional form Dnieper may be given after the official variant Dnipro:   Dnipro (Dnieper)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Ukrainian letters	English letters	Notes	Examples
А	A
Б	B
В	V
Г	H, Gh	H – in most cases, Gh – when recreating “г” in combination “зг”	згинути
Г	G
Д	D
Е	E
Є	Ye, ie	Ye – at the beginning, ie – in other position	Yeltsin
Ж	Zh
З	Z
И	Y
І	I
Ї	Yi, i	Yi – at the beginning, i – in other position
Й	Y, i	Y – at the beginning, i – in other position
К	K
Л	L
М	M
Н	N
О	O
П	P
Р	R
С	S
Т	T
У	U
Ф	F
Х	Kh
Ц	Ts
Ч	Ch
Ш	Sh
Щ	Sch
Ь	’	may be omitted
Ю	Yu, iu	Yu – at the beginning, iu – in other position	Yushchenko
Я	Ya, ia	Ya – at the beginning, ia – in other position	Yanukovych
’	’	may be omitted