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the Gerund

The Late ME period witnessed the growth of a new verbal known in modern grammars as the Gerund. In ME the Present Participle and the verbal noun became identical: they both ended in -ing. verbal nouns began to take direct objects. This verbal feature — a direct object ^1 as well as the frequent absence of article before the -ing-form functioning as a noun — transformed the verbal noun into a Gerund in the modern understanding of the term. The disappearance of the inflected infinitive contributed to the change, as some of its functions were taken over by the Gerund.

In Early NE the -ing-form in the function of a noun is commonly used with an adverbial modifier and with a direct object — in case of transitive verbs. The nominal features, retained from the verbal noun, were its syntactic functions and the ability to be modified by a possessive pronoun or a noun in the Gen. case. the usage of the Gerund grew. it replaced the Infinitive and the Participle in many adverbial functions. it could be used with various prepositions.

35. The rise of analytical forms in the verbal system in ME.

Analytical forms developed within the ME period:

• Future tense;
• the passive voice;
• perfect tense.

They developed from free syntactical combinations. The 1^st was a verb with broad meaning, the 2^nd non-future form.

1. Future tense: shall+inf – future action; willen+inf. Eg: wol ye maken assurance – will you make assurance.

In the OE language there was no form of the Future tense. The category of Tense consisted of two members: Past and Present. The Pres. tense could indicate both present and future actions, depending on the context. Shall, willen can express "pure" futurity and add different shades of modal meanings. Shall more official.

2. In OE the finite verb had no category of Voice. The analytical passive forms developed from OE verb phrases consisting of OE beon (NE be) and weordan ('become') and Part, II of transitive verbs.

The Passive Voice in ME: ben + Past Part → analytical forms to express state action. Eg: the conseil that was accrded (the advice that was given). The wide use of pass. constr. in the 18^th – 19^th cent → high productively of the P.Voice.

3. Perfect forms: go down to 2 types of syntactical combination.

• habban (have) with transitive verbs

• bēon (be)             → + Part II

Eg: Ic habbe þonne bēsc getengenne – я имел ту рыбку пойманной. The auxiliary ‘to have’ for perf forms was established in the 18^th cent.

36. The rise of analytical forms in verbal system in NE

NE: -continuous; -do-forms; -future tense; -Perfect; -Passive; -Subjunctive

-1- Future – 17th c. John Wallis –  the rule: shall – 1st p, will – 2,3rd p

-2- Perfect – only the auxiliary habban was left while beon ceased to be used in the Perf. Forms not to confuse them with Passive forms (though some of the forms are still left)

-3- Subj. Mood – analytical forms appeared: leten (let), neden (need).sholde/ wolde soon weakened their modal meaning and became auxiliaries.

Pecularities: sh/w + Inf – simult act; sh/w + Perf Inf – preced. act.

The Pres. tense of the Subj. Mood expressed probable or problematic actions referred to the future, or, less frequently, to the present. In order to indicate improbable events in the past, a new set of forms came to be used: the Past Perf. forms which did not differ from the forms of the Ind. Mood.

-4- Cont-s – 18th c. Cont forms became well-established

18th c. Cont forns in Passive were accepted as a norm (but clumsy and non grammatical)

In Early NE the Pass. Voice continued to grow and to extend its application. Pass, forms began to be built from intransitive verbs associated with different kinds of objects: indirect objects, prepositional objects.

The new Pass, forms had a regular means of indicating the doer of the action or the instrument with the help of which it was performed. Out of a variety of prepositions employed in OE — from, mid, bi — two were selected and generalised: by and with.

-5- Do-forms – in the 16th c. in negative, affirm, interr. Periphrasis with do.

17th c. only in negat. And interr. To keep word order S+P+O in affirm. Sent. Do acquired an emphatic meaning.

 

38. Types of syntactical relations between words in the history of English.

The syntactic structure of OE was determined by two major conditions: the nature of OE morphology and the relations between the spoken and the written forms of the language.

Types: agreement; government; joining.

1. agreement mainly used in attribute groups to denote the relation between an adj/pron and the substantive: eg: sæ‾re bēc (that book) (Dat).
2. Government – substantive pron. stands in a certain case (Acc, Dat, Gen) depends on the head word: Eg: andsnare onfōn (receive answer): -subst. Acc – transitive verb. Eg: nēosian hūses (approach the houses).
3. Joining – an adj referring to a verb/adj is connected with it without any formal means.

ME:

1. agreement – was reduced < reduced morphological system. Only agreement in number survived for strong declension adj and pron. Eg: fresshe floures (fresh flowers).
2. government has no essential changes in ME;
3. joining was widened by the reduction of agreement.

NE:

1. agreement goes on decreasing. Only THIS and THAT still agree in number with their head word.
2. government – only personal pron, interrogative. and relative pron which are governed.
3. joining – old wrinkles – the adj connected with the head word by joining.

 

39. Agreement in the history of English

4. Agreement is a system of correspondence bw 2 or more words in regard to case, number, gender and person.Eg. Mine da?as ā?āne bēoþ (My days gone are) – indicate pl.
5. In OE agreement mainly used in attribute groups to denote the relation between an adj/pron and the substantive: eg: sæ‾re bēc (that book) (Dat). Besides the adj could be in preposition to the noun or in postposition.
6. In ME adj. lost all their gramm. categories(number, case, gender). The nouns had only 2 cases and they lost gender. That’s why it’s impossible to show agreement. There is no agreement in case and gender. A-nt – was reduced < reduced morphological system. Only agreement in number survived for strong declension adj and pron. Eg: fresshe floures (fresh flowers). The ending –e. In 15^th cent. This ending was dropped and adj+noun combin-ns don’t have any a-nt. Some of the pronouns still preserve a-nt in number (this-these, that-those).

 

40. Negation in the history of English.

OE belong to lang. which can have more than one negation (polynegation). The main negator was Ne, which was usually placed before the verb. As a result of this regular pre-verb position Ne often fused with such verbs as: bēon, habban, willan, witan (знать).

it was often accompanied by other negative words, mostly naht or noht.

ne + is = nis

ne + wat = hat (не знаю) ne + vowel or W or N

ne + wylle = nylle (не хочу)

OE: ne + verb

ME: V + not (nat)

not (nat) < ne + with (вещь)

‘-‘ + ‘-‘ = ‘+’. (Walles – grammarian)

(2 minuses make plus).

 

41. Word order in the history of English.

In the OE sentence was relatively free. The position of a word was often determined by logical and stylistic factors rather than by gramm. rules.

SOP – generally occurred in dependent clauses or when the object was expressed by a pronoun. Eg: þa hēo þæt genisde

   (S)   (О)   (Р)

   она  то   услышала

PSO (inversion) – was to be found in sentences which open which adverb. modifier. Eg: þā cwæþ hēo tō him, questions.

In ME and NE the order of the words became fixed and direct. In the 17-18 cent. It was determined by the same rules as operate in E today. S+P+O. Invertion was required for communicative purposes or for emphasis. In Modern English has to be found existential sentences or sentences with the construction there is/are. Eg: There are 10 people there.

It was a full adverb which took the first position. Eg: Huæt canst(P) þu(S)? (что умеешь ты?).

 

42. OE vocabulary and its etymological characteristics.

Native OE words can be subdivided into a number of etymological layers coming from different historical periods the three main are:

• common IE (names of natural phenomena, plants, animals, human body);
• common Germanic (connected with nature, sea and everyday life– god, sea, storm, ship)
• English words proper
• borrowings from Latin and Celtic.

The greatest borrowings – in English (70%);

Celtic – names of places

Latin – культура религия наука.

The smallest – Icelandic. (geography, history, economy, politics).

The vocabulary of all the lang. shows an obvious and strong influence.

English occupies a specific place among the Germanic lang for the reasons:

1. very conservative spelling;
2. it is highly advanced reduction in phonemes;
3. it’s highly developed analytical structure (continuous forms);
4. it’s high % of borrowed words (60 – 70%).

 

43. Affixation & Word-composition in the history of English

I. Derivation sound interchanges (always combined with suf –n);

Derived words in OE were built with the help of affixes: prefixes and suffixes; in addition to these principal means of derivation, words were distinguished with the help of sound interchanges and word stress.

1. –vowel gradation (inherited from PG and IE). Eg: rīdan – rād, singan – song;

            –i-mutation: fōd – fēdan (food – feed);

            -breaking: beran – bearn (bear – born).

2. word stress: not great influence. differentiate between words: parts of speech. Eg: ond swarian (v) – ond swaru (n);
3. prefixation (a productive way); Eg: gān – go; ā – gān – go away; be – gān – go round. Most productive – ā, be, for, ge, un.
4. suffixation (the most productive mean):

- suf of ‘agent nouns’ – some dead suf –s: -a (hunta); -end (fīend) > ere (IE) scōlere.

- suf of abstract nouns:

    stem۸-t (dead):meaht(might)

             -oþ,uþ (huntoþ - hunting)

    -suf.from root-morphemes:

dōm: wīsdom; hād(cīldhād - childhood)

--adj-s: iз(modiз-proud); isc(mennisc)

--adv.:lice(rotlice-cheerfully); full(weorðfull)

44. Compounding. conversion

Word-composition(highly productive)

1. noun+noun:

e.g.heāfod-mann(head-man,leader)

2. noun+adj.:

e.g.зōd-dæ‾d(good deed)

3. verb+noun

e.g.bæc-hūs(baking house)

4. formed with several methods:

e.g.un-wīs-dōm(fody)

      un-negative pref.

      wīs-adj-stem

      dōm-noun-st.sturning into ۸

Nominal part of speech could be turned with the help of word-composition.

Conversion was a new method of word derivation which arose in Late ME and grew into a most productive, specifically English way of creating new words. Conversion is effected through a change in the meaning, the grammatical paradigm and the syntactic use of the word in the sentence. The word is transformed into another part of speech with an identical initial form, e.g. NE house n and house v.

The growth of conversion is accounted for by grammatical and lexical changes during the ME period; reduction of endings and suffixes and the simplification of the morphological structure of the word.

45.Scandinavian loans in English.

Scand.influence 8th c. as a result of Scandinavian invasions (in oral com-tion) (10 hundr. borrowings)

1. there were no great social difference between the scand.&anglo-saxon people. They belonged to the same social layers&had equal rights:-mixed marriages- assimilate.of people.

2. mix of scan.&English dealects(northeast)

3.the Eng.&Sc.belong to the same German group. People could easily understand each other

4.the influence was felt in the 2 spheres:-vocabulary,-morphology

Most loan-word denote familiar common things, everyday life: bag, skin. Verbs: take, die, call, kill; adj: happy, ill, ugly. Preserved in ME: band, call, add, hit, rule, sky, skirt, window, from. 1400 place names

 

46. French loans in English.

1. The contact between English and French was different;
2. The French was the language of upper classes. the English – common people (rude);
3. French belongs to the group of Romanic languages;
4. 12 – 14^th cent.
5. French influence was more marked in the South and South- East.
6. many synonyms. Eg: language (Fr) – tongue (Eng); huge, large (Fr) – great (Eng);
7. many of the b-s retain in such spheres as administration, religion, military affairs.
8. –ish, -ment, -age, -en,

(village, joy, courage, finish, point, move, enter, use, famous

47. Loans from classical l-ges in English.

Latin words were borrowed in all historical periods. It was the main l-ge of philosophy and sience, religion (angel, devil, minister, lesson, school)

Greek borrowings: (comedy, climax, dialogue, elegy, scene, theatre). Humanism –ism(Gr), -ismus (Lat). The Greek prefixes anti-, di- (diverse), neo-,  anti- (antibiotic) the Latin and French de-, ex-, re-. Gr.-Lat hybrids (telegraph, socio-logy, tele-vision)

Numerous Latin & Greek words were first used by Thomas More (16^th c). Among his innovations: fact, explain, anticipate, exact. Many classical borrowings first appeared in Shakespeare’s works: accommodation, apostrophe, reliance.

Some borrowings have a more specialized meaning and belong to scientific terminology: antenna, analysis, atom, complex

Some of the Greek loans retain peculiarities of spelling which can facilitate identification: ph for f, ps for s, ch for k,

Fate of these borrowings:

1)Many of them changed their meaning: (Lat. –musculus – Eng. Muscle; Gr. – kosmos – Eng - cosmetics)

2)Many of them formed the basis for international terminology

3)Many of them increased the synonyms

Lat–regal;Fr.borr.–royal;Native Germ.-kingly

48. Italian and Spanish Borrowings

Italian-musical terms:aria,concerto

             -culture:balcony,design

             -literature:replica,sonnet

Spanish-polit.fields:armada,embargo

               -food:banana,chocolate

 

49. Borrowings in NE

Most of foreign words retained a foreign appearance: spelling, stress.

1.French:-diplomatic term – attaché

               -social life:ball,notel

               -art-essay

               -fashion-blouse,dress

2.Italian-musical terms:aria,concerto

             -culture:balcony,design

             -literature:replica,sonnet

3.Spanish-polit.fields:armada,embargo

               -food:banana,chocolate

4.Dutch:trade:pack,cruise

              art-landscape

5.German:-science:cobalt

                -philosophy: transcendental

6.Russian-beluga,komsomol,vodka,samovar,sputnik

 

50. Causes of changes in the morphological system in ME and NE

The OE division into classes of weak and strong verbs was completely rearranged and broken. Most verbs have adopted the way of form-building employed by the weak verbs: the dental suffix instead of vowel gradation. The strict classification of the strong verbs with their regular system of form-building degenerated. All these changes led to increased regularity and uniformity and to development of a more consistent and simple system of building and principal forms of the verb. Strong verb: In ME the final syllables of the stems were weakened, in early NE most of them were lost. The OE endings –an, -on, -en were reduced to ME –en. The root-vowels underwent the regular changes of stressed vowels. The most imp. Change in the system of strong verbs was  the reduction in the number of stems from 4 to 3.