Вопросы развития лексикологии

1)after a voiced cons or a vowel – stones [sto:nes- stounez-stounz]; [dais-deiz]

2)after a voiceless cons.–books [bo:kes bu:ks- buks]

3)after sibilant(свистящий) & affricates – dishes [diSes-diSis]

The ME –en lost its productivity so that in NE we nouns which can only find oxen, children, brethren

The small gr. of ME nouns with homonymous forms of number (deer, hors, thing) has  survived as exeptions: deer, sheep, swine. The gr. of former root-stems has survived as exceptions too: man, tooth.

It must be noticed that not all irregular forms in NE are the traces of OE declensions; forms like data, antennae, bacteria have come from other languages.

 

23. The OE personal pronouns and its futher development in ME and NE.

OE pronouns fell roughly under the same main classes as modern pronouns - personal, demonstrative, interrogative and indefinite. As for the other groups — relative, possessive and reflexive – no existed.

OE personal pronouns had three persons, three numbers in the 1st and 2nd p. (two numbers — in the 3rd) and three genders in the 3rd p. The pronouns of the 1st and 2nd p. had suppletive forms.

It is important to note that the Gen. case of personal pronouns had two main applications; like other oblique cases of noun-pronouns it could be an object, but far more frequently it was used as an attribute or a noun determiner, like a possessive pronoun.

Gender was in the 3rd person sing. Eg: hē – hēo  – hit (m – f – n).

Cases:   m        f         n

N ic þэīī              hē       hēo     hit

G min þin his    hire     his

D mē þe him   hire    him

Acc me þe hine   hie     hit

            1st pers. sg→2nd pers.sg→3rd pers. sg.

The fem. pronoun of the 3rd pers. And  mascul. pron. of the 3rd per. could become identical. The language developed new ways:

The pl. “hie” is replaced by Sc (от скандинав.)“they”  (13th);

The object case represented by Sc “them” (OE hem);

The fem “hēo”  → shē (ME) → she (NE) (as hēo was homonymous to hē; hit -> it. The language discriminated this form, “he” – survived.

dual number pron. have disappeared;

3 cases : Nom, possessive (from Gen), Obj (from Dat, Acc)

the new pron. “there” appeared (Sc);

In NE:

the pron of the 2nd pers. sg went out of use in the 17th cent → “you” for sg and pl, the 2nd pl “you”  replaced “gē” OE.

Late ME “she” is believed to have developed from the OE demonstrative pron of the femin. gender –  “sēo”

the other forms of OE “hēo” were preserved “hire/her” used in ME as the Obj. case and as a possessive pron. is a form of OE “hēo”. “Hers” was derived from “hire/here”.

 

24. The OE adj

OE adj possess 3 categories:

gender (m, f, n);

number (sg, pl);

case (5). The category of case in adjectives differed from that of nouns: in addition to the four cases of nouns they had one more case, Instr. It was used when the adjective served as an attribute to a noun in the Dat. case expressing an instrumental   meaning.

Main features of the adj:

repeated the grammatical categories of noun that they modify;

2 types of declension

strong (a, l, o - stems of noun; call, manig – always str.);

weak (n – stems, i, l, c, a – “same” – always weak);

Unlike a noun, an adjective did not belong to a certain type of declension. Most adjectives could be declined in both ways. The choice of the declension was determined by a number of factors: the syntactical function of the adjective, the degree of comparison and the presence of noun determiners. The adjective had a strong form when used predicatively and when used attributively without any determiners,

5 cases (Nom, Gen., Dat, Accus, Instr. (lүˉtte werede – малым войском).

25. Development of the adj in ME

In ME it became unchangeable part of speech (except for the degree of comparison). The first category to disappear was gender, the Iast case fused with Dat. But at the end of 13th cent cases were lost.

By the end of the OE period the agreement of the adjective with the noun had become looser and in the course of Early ME it was practically lost. Though the grammatical categories of the adjective reflected those of the noun, most of them disappeared even before the noun lost the respective distinctions.

The first category to disappear was Gender, which ceased to be distinguished by the adjective in the 11th c.

The loss of final -e in the transition to NE made the adjective an entirely uninflected part of speech.

 

26. Degrees of comparison on the adjective in the history of English

3 degrees of comparison:

Positive (scort)

comparative (-ra);

superlative (-est/ -ost);

In OE there were 3  ways of formation of degrees of comparison:

1)inflections

Positive –soft; compare. – softra; superlat. - softost

2)root-sound interchange+inflections

Eald - ieldra - ieldest

3)suppletion

gōd – bettra – bet(e)st;

lytel - læˉssa - læˉst

micel – māra - mæˉst (much)

There were no analytical forms (more, most).

In ME there are foll. changes:

-er, -est were used to form compare & superl. Degrees.

-root-sound interchange fell into disuse (long-longer-longest).  Exeptions: old, far-furthe-furthest

-new way of form-n: More, most + adj.

In ME the degrees of comparison could be build in the same way, only the suffix had been weakened to –er; -est.

The changing of vowels in Early NE survived in old, elder, eldest where the difference in meaning from older – oldest made distinction. Also in father/ further.

27. The OE demonstrative pronouns. The rise of the articles in English.

Demonstrative pronouns:

2 of them:

prototype of “that” (sē (m), þæt (n), sēo(f));

prototype of “this” (þes(m), þēos(n), þis(f));

They were declined like adjectives according to a five-case system: Nora., Gen., Dat., Ace, and Instr.

Some case endings resembled those of personal pronouns, e.g. -m — Dat. Masc. and Neut. sg and Dat. pl; the element -r- in the Dat. and Gen. sg Fern, and in the Gen, pl. These case endings, which do not occur in the noun paradigms, are often referred to as "pronominal" endings (-m, -r-, -f).

were used as noun determiners and through agreement with the noun, indicated its number, case and gender. They can help to distinguish between gender.

Its declension disappeared in ME. Traces of its Instr. case are found: Eg: the more the better followed by the comparative degree.

The ind. article developed from numeral ‘ān’  and often preserves traces of its meaning: Eg: a steaching time saves night.

In ME the OE demonst. pron. lost most of their inflected forms. Dem pron sē, sēo, þæt led to the formation of the def article.

In OE texts these pron were used as noun determiners with a weakened meaning (as Mod def art).

In the course of ME there arose an important formal difference between the demonstrative pronoun and the definite article: as a demonstrative pronoun that preserved number distinctions whereas as a definite article.

The development of the definite article is usually connected with the changes in the declension of adjectives, namely with the loss of distinctions between the strong and weak forms.

Another factor which may account for the more regular use of articles was the changing function of the word order. Relative freedom in the position of words in the OE sentence made it possible to use word order for communicative purposes.

After the loss of inflections, the word order assumed a grammatical function — it showed the grammatical relations between words in the sentence; now the parts of the sentence, e. g. the subject or the objects, had their own fixed places. Accordingly, the communicative functions passed to the articles and their use became more regular.

28. The OE verb, its gram. categories and morphological types.

The verb-predicate agreed with the subject of the sentence in two grammatical categories: number and person. Its specifically verbal categories were mood and tense.

The verb-predicate agreed with the subj. in 2 gram. cat.:

number: sg/pl.;

person was shown in the Pres. Tense of the Ind. Mood sg. Eg: hē binderþ (he binds) – 3rd pers sg.

Mood:

Indicative – finde    → Infin.- findan (sg)

Imperative – find

Subjective – finde

The use of the Subj, Mood in OE was in many respects different from its use in later ages. Subj. forms conveyed a very general meaning of unreality or supposition. in clauses of time, clauses of result and in clauses presenting reported speech, problematic actions.

Tense: Present, Past.

Morphological types:

Strong verbs (purely of OE origin) form their Past tense by changing their root vowel. 7 classes. R. – беру – брал.  Strong verbs represent an unproductive type.

4 forms: writan (Infin), wrāt (Past sg), writon (Past pl), written (Past Participle).

Weak verbs form their tense with a help of –d/-t (dental suffix) → productive type; Germanic origin.

3 forms: maxean (Infin), maxode (Past sg), maxod (Participle II). Eg: maxodon – Past pl.

Preterent - Present (12th cent). Their present forms were once past tense forms. Eg: dugan (avail), cunnan (can), magan (may).

Anomalous (irregular). The forms are derived from different roots. Eg: bēon: ist (1st pers. sg), wæron (Past pl), wæst (Past sg.). Also: dōn (do), gān (go), willan (will).

 

 

29. Strong verbs in OE and their development.

The strong type of verbs was inherited from IE. The verbs of this type build their Past & Part II with the help of ablaut of vowel gradation (перегласовка). Ablaut was to be found in all IE l-ges. It survived in Russian as well (несу-нес, беру-брал). Due to numerous positional vowel changes the IE ablaut shows many variations: 7 types rīsan-rās-rĩson-risen; drĩncon- drănc-druncon-druncen.

He number of strong verbs in E which still retain the OE model is only ~70, The origin of the terms “strong/weak verbs” –  Jacob Grimm. Strong verbs do not need any suffixes, support, outside the root.

In ME a very significant change in the former paradigm of strong verbs happened: thy had the same root for all persons: OE 1/3 – dranc; 2 - drunce→ ME drank

This contributed to greater regularity. Diff. vowels for past sg & pl fell together (coincided)

The OE verb had numerous persons and number cases, but fewer gram. categ. than NE verb had.

The most important change in the system in ME of strong verbs was the reduction in the number of stems from four to three, by removing the distinction between the two past tense stems.

Str. verbs form their Past tense by changing their root vowel, had 4 principle forms:

• Infinitive – writan;
• Past sg – wrote;
• Past pl – writen;
• Participle II – writen.

They can be found in Rus → IE origin. Eg: беру – брал, несу – нес.

Often denoted the most important actions and states. In NE they are mainly irregular verbs.

Had 7 classes:

1. 1-6 classes use vowel gradation;
2. 7 class include reduplication verbs, build their Past tense repeating the root vowel.
3. The principle forms have the same endings:

Inf. - -an;

Past sg -  ---;

Past pl - -on;

Part. II - -en.

4. some verbs with the root ending in –s; -p; -f employed an interchange of consonants [s → z  → r], [θ → ð → d], [f → v];
5. The classes differed in the number of verbs and in their role and weight in the language.
6. Classes 4 and 5 deffered in the stems of Part. II. Classes 2, 3 and 4 – had identical vowels in the stems of Part. II.;
7. Classes 1 and 2 - contained in the root [I, u]. Classes 3, 4 and 5 – contained the gradation.
8. In ME many str. verbs changed into weak – they began to use dental suffix instead of the root verb change.
9. The root vowel in the Past sg and pl fell together. In the 15th cent – one stem is used. In NE – 3 forms of str verbs are used. Eg: writ – wrote – written.
10. The OE endings –an

-en  →-en (NE)

-en

 

30.Weak verbs in OE&their further development.

The OE verb had numerous persons&number cases but it had fewer gram.categories than NE verb has. Weak verbs form their Past forms&Part.II by ending the suffix-d,-t.Had 4principle forms:

-Inf.(macian)(make)

-Past Sg(macode)

-PartII(macod)

-Past Pl(macodon)

There’re purely of Germanic origin.Presented a productive type.Had 3 classes

- The diversion depended on stem building suffix; Already in OE this suffix can’t be observed. It can be traced only ethimologically.

cl.I:  Inf.-an; -the Past-de,-ede,-te; -PartII-d,-ed,-t (the root vowels of these verbs were mutated – cepan – cepte, tellan-tallde)

clII: -ian, the most numerous; the only productive class of weak verbs, as a result it served as a model for all new verbs of OE and ME; -cl 2 was based on the suffix oja;   j- was presented in the Inf & Pr. tense– lician – licide – licoal (liked), macian;       ode-  was presented in the Past forms – licode, lufode;  od- partII

clIII –an. the least numerous (3 verbs only: habban, libbon, secgan – have, live, say) -inf.-an without vowel before the suf. the Past-de; -PartII-d

The suffix –ode in the Past tense can be transformed in –ed in NE, in ME it was [ed]

 

31.Preterite-present verbs in OE&their further development.

Several minor groups of verbs can’t be referred neither to str. nor to weak group. The most important group of these verbs were preterite-present: there were 12,only 6 survived.

Originally the Present tense forms of these verbs were Past tense forms (or, more precisely, IE perfect forms, denoting past actions relevant for the present). Later these forms acquired a present meaning but preserved many formal features of the Past tense.

e.g.maзan-мочь, aзan(ought), cunan(can,could), dear(dare), sculan(shall,should), mot(must)

They denote not action but state, attitude.

The verbs were inflected in the Present like the Past tense of strong verbs: the forms of the 1st and 3rd p. sg were identical and had no ending— yet, unlike strong verbs, they had the same root-vowel in all the persons; the pl had a different grade of ablaut similarly with strong verbs.

In the Past the preterite-presents were inflected like weak verbs: the dental suffix plus the endings -e, -est, -e.

The conjugation:

2.weak verbs,-e,-est,-e-the Past

3.the interchanges of root vowels in the sg.&pl.of Pres-the str.v.

Most NE modal verbs have developed from themðmodal verbs don’t have the ending-s in the 3rdp.sg.

Several preterite-present verbs died out. The surviving verbs lost some of their old forms and grammatical distinctions but retained many specific peculiarities. They lost the forms of the verbals which had sprung up in OE and the distinctions between the forms of number and mood in the Present tense. In NE their paradigms have been reduced to two forms  or even to one.

32. The anomalous verbs in OE and their further development.

Among minor groups verbs that be referred neither to str nor to weak verbs, there were several anomalous (irregular) verbs, which forms are derived from different roots. Eg: bēon (быть) – be, was, is;

OE gan has had a most unusual history. In OE its Past form was built from a different root and had a weak ending: eode; its Part. II ended in -n, similarly with strong verbs gegan. In ME the verb acquired a new Past tense wente, which came from an entirely different verb, OE wendan (ME wenden, NE wend). Its OE Past form wente had entered the paradigm of goon.

Bēon – been (ME) – be (NE)

To this group the verbs dōn (do), gān (go), willan (will) belong.

33. OE participles

In OE there were two non-finite forms of the verb: the Infinitive and the Participle. In many respects they were closer to the nouns and adjectives than to the finite verb; their nominal features were far more obvious than their verbal features. Have number, gender, case.

The Participle was a kind of verbal adjective which was characterised not only by nominal but also by certain verbal features. Participle I (Present Participle) was opposed to Participle II {Past Participle) through voice and tense distinctions: it was active and expressed present or simultaneous processes and qualities, while Participle II expressed states and qualities resulting from past action and was contrasted to Participle I as passive to active.

Participle I was formed from the Present tense stem (the Infinitive without the endings -an, -ion) with the help of the suffix -ende. Participle II had a stem of its own — in strong verbs it was marked by a certain grade of the root-vowel interchange and by the suffix -en; with weak verbs it ended in -d-t . Participle II was commonly marked by the prefix ge- though it could also occur without it, especially if the verb had other word-building prefixes.

The main trends of their evolution in ME and NE can be defined as gradual loss of most nominal features (except syntactical functions) and growth of verbal features.

loss of forms of agreement. The distinctions between the two participles were preserved in ME and NE: Participle I had an active meaning and expressed a process or quality simultaneous with the events described by the predicate of the sentence. Participle II had an active or passive meaning depending on the transitivity of the verb, and expressed a preceding action or its results in the subsequent situation. Participle 1 -ing(e). In ME the weak verbs built Participle II with the help of the dental suffix -(e)d, -t, the strong verbs — with the help of vowel gradation and the suffix -en.

The OE prefix ge-, which was a frequent marker of the Past Participle was weakened to i- or y- in ME. . Being verbal adjectives Participles I and II lost their gender, case and number distinctions and also the weak and strong forms in the same way as the adjectives, and even somewhat earlier.

34. OE infinitive

In OE there were two non-finite forms of the verb: the Infinitive and the Participle. In many respects they were closer to the nouns and adjectives than to the finite verb; their nominal features were far more obvious than their verbal features.

The Infinitive had no verbal grammatical categories. Being a verbal noun by origin, it had a sort of reduced case-system: two forms which roughly corresponded to the Norn, and the Dat. cases of nouns.

beran — uninflected  Infinitive ("Nom." case) to berenne or to beranne — inflected Infinitive {"Dat." case)

Like the Dat. case of nouns the inflected Infinitive with the preposition to could be used to indicate the direction or purpose of an action.

The uninflected  Infinitive was used in verb phrases with modal verbs or other verbs of incomplete predication.

The main trends of their evolution in ME and NE can be defined as gradual loss of most nominal features (except syntactical functions) and growth of verbal features.

loss of case distinctions. The Infinitive lost its inflected form (the so-called "Dat. case") in Early ME. The preposition to, which was placed in OE before the inflected infinitive to show direction or purpose, lost its prepositional force and changed into a formal sign of the Infinitive. In ME the Infinitive with to does not necessarily express purpose. In order to reinforce the meaning of purpose another preposition, for.