Typology of the Compound Sentence

Typology of the Compound Sentence

Clauses in compound sentences of the contrasted languages are mostly joined by means of co-ordinate conjunctions which provide parataxal relations between them. Conjunctions joining clauses in compound sentences of the contrasted languages are practically of the same semantic nature: copulative, adversative, and causal/or (in English only). Equally common in the contrasted languages are various connectives that join coordinate clauses. These are as follows: therefore, consequently, accordingly, then, hence, so, while, as well as and some explanatory connective words (that is to say, such as, like, let me say and others), which have corresponding functional (and semantic) equivalents in Ukrainian (отже, та, а саме, звідси, тобто, тоді, як-то, так-як, ...так, скажімо, то...то). Co-ordinate conjunctions, as well as various connectives, realise their functional and semantic meaning in structurally and semantically identical English and Ukrainian compound sentences. This is to be explained by the existence of common relations that are created between the coordinate clauses of compound sentences and to a large degree by the semantic meanings of conjunctions/connectives that join these clauses. As a result, isomorphism, if not exact likeness, is observed in the nature of some subtypes of English and Ukrainian compound sen-tences. These isomorphic features find their expressions in the exis-tence of the following subtypes of them:

1. Compound Sentences with Free/Neutral Interrelations  between Their Clauses

Co-ordinated clauses of this subtype of compound sentences change their position without effecting in any way their semantic structure or the communicative aim of the expression.     Cf. It was like singing and it wasn't like singing. (Faulkner) When transformed with the help of changing the position of clauses into "It wasn't like singing and it was like singing" the content of the sentence does not change, though the order of actions becomes reverse.      Similarly in the following sentence: I smiled and he smiled. (Dreiser) which may be transformed into "He smiled and I smiled. " Though the sequence (the order) of the events is changed, the general content of the sentence is not changed on the whole.                     This kind of transformation can be performed on the Ukrainian variants of the two sentences. Cf. Це було не схоже на спів і це було схоже на спів. Я засміявся і він засміявся. = Він засміявся і я засміявся. In compound sentences consisting of more than two semantically neutral clauses, the first clause may not always change its place with other clauses. The restriction in transformation through the change of place is due to the semantic interrelation existing between the main clause and the other clauses of the compound sentence. Cf. They were all from Milan, 1) and one of them was to be a lawyer, 2) and one was to be a painter, 3) and one had intended to be a soldier. (Hemingway) In this sentence the second and the third clauses can change their place with the preceding or with the succeeding clause without changing in any noticeable way the sense and the structure of the composite sentence as a whole. Cf. They were all from Milan 1) and one of them was to be a lawyer, 2) and one of them was to be a painter. Or: They were all from Milan, 2) and one of them was to be a painter, 1) and one of them was to be a lawyer, 3) and one had intended to be a soldier. The Ukrainian variant of this sentence undergoes similar trans-formation through the change of place of the same neutral clauses. Cf. Вони всі троє були з Мілана, 2) і один з них мав був стати художником, 3) один мав колись намір стати військовим, І) а один мав був стати правником.      Transformations/transpositions of the kind are not always possible, however, in compound sentences whose clauses in the contrasted languages are joined with the help of some other copulative conjunctions. Cf. The hall was not dark, nor was it lit... (Bronte) Передпокій не був темний, як не був він і освітлений.

Nevertheless, a transformation through the change of position of clauses is not excluded in compound sentences with the conjunction "as" having "як" for its functional and semantic equivalent in Ukrainian. Cf. He had never quite accepted it, as he had never accepted other aspects of his life. (Maltz) Він ніколи не схвалював цієї, як не схвалював він і інших сторін свого життя. Cf. He had never accepted other aspects of his life, as he had never accepted it. Similarly in Ukrainian: Він ніколи не схвалював інших сторін свого життя, як не схвалював він і цієї.

2. Compound Sentences with Adversative Interrelations between Their Clauses (протиставний сполучник)

These relations are formed in English by the conjunctions but, still, and yet, whose equivalents in Ukrainian are а, але, проте, та, однак:

Two of the ways were alongside canals, but they were long. (Hemingway) Now and then it was hidden by the mist, yet it always came out bright again. (O'Dell) Два шляхи вели вздовж каналів, але вони були довшими. Часом гору ховав туман, та вона знову виринала в яскравих променях сонця.   This type of the compound sentence in English and Ukrainian consists of clauses whose position is fixed. The second clauses in such compound sentences may be introduced by different conjunctions or connectors, and they may also be connected asyndetically.      Whatever the means of connection, the main factors predetermining the fixed placement of most clauses in the contrasted languages are common. They are as follows:     1) the semantic dependence of the second clause on the action/ event in the main ("principal") clause; 2) the nature and meaning (structure) of the conjunction/connective word;                          3) the semantic predetermining of the syndetically or asyndetically joined second/third clauses;  4) the existence of other than the main conjunction;                                                                                                         5) the existence of extension or expansion of component clauses through appending word-combinations or regular clauses. The realization of each of the above-mentioned factors can be observed in some common subtypes of compound sentences, the main groups of which in the contrasted languages are as follows:

A. Compound Sentences with Anaphoric Pronouns/ Складно-сурядні речення з анафоричними займенниками

The succeeding (second) clause joined to the preceding clause by the copulative conjunction "and" may depend semantically on a noun or any other notional word/part of the sentence performing some function in the first clause. This subtype of compound sentences is common in the contrasted languages; it has mostly equivalent structure forms of the same sentences: We quarrel and that makes the time pass. (Hemingway) Ми гиркаємося, і це коротає наш час. You kept from thinking and it was  Ти переставав задумуватись, і all marvellous. (Ibid.)  це було чудово. The anaphoric pronoun may be located at some distance from the antece dent noun, eg: He had no prospects and he knew that. (M. Quin) Він не мав жодних перспектив і він знав це.         Anaphoric may also be a predicative construction with a pronoun it as the subject of the clause: In her dream she was at the house on Long Island and it was night before her daughter's debut. (Hemingway) Їй снилася домівка на Лонг-Айленді, і ніби то був вечір перед доччиним дебютом. Here the anaphoric pronoun it in the second clause is enclosed in the predicative word-group it was night which functions as a single anaphoric pronoun both in English and in Ukrainian (cf. то був вечір перед... дебютом). The co-occurrence of compound sentences with anaphoric pronouns (word-groups with pronouns) is considerably high in English and Ukrainian.

B.  Compound Sentences with Disjunctive Interrelations Between Clauses/ Складносурядні  речення  з  роз'єднальними сполучниками

Disjunctive relations are expressed in English through the conjunctions or, either ... or whose semantic and partly structural equivalents in Ukrainian are або, або...або, чи...чи, чи то...чи то, не то...не то. Cf. Не can try for the ditch again or he can dodge around the house. (P. Grimm) ...I must weep or else my heart will burst. (Byron) Він може знову сховатися в рові, а чи хитро крутне за будинок. ...Я плакати мушу, а то в мене серце розірветься.        Note. Some repeating conjunctions of the group are often used to express co-ordinate actions excluding, in turn, each others. As a result, clauses in such sentences may sometimes change their position with-out losing their disjunctive interrelation, eg: Чи то було сьогодні, чи нічого не було? (Коцюбинський) Чи нічого не було, чи то було сьогодні? Or in English: Either it was today or it was nothing? Either it was nothing, or it was today?

C. Compound Sentences with Causative and Consecutive In terrelations between Clauses/Складносурядні речення з причинно-наслідковими  відношеннями  між  складовими (підрядними) реченнями в українських відповідниках.

The interrelations of cause and consequence are expressed through the causative and co-ordinate conjunction/or which has corresponding subordinate conjunctions in Ukrainian (бо, тим-то, оскільки):

D. Compound Sentences with Determining Clauses/Склад но-сурядні речення з детермінованими складовими

The existence of compound sentences whose clauses are joined by different conjunctions and connectives which express determining is a testimony of some features being common in composite sentences of parataxal and hypotaxal ways of joining their clauses. Determining clauses in English and Ukrainian have more or less clear reference to some adverbial meaning — temporal, causal, resultative, concessive, etc. which may be more or less clearly expressed in the second or third clauses. Cf. 1) The tracks ground up and away heading out of it all and the peasants plodded in ankle deep dust. (Hemingway) 2) Larry puffed at his pipe and Suzanne waited for him to go. (Maugham) The second clauses in both compound sentences can change their place without any harm to their general content. Cf. The peasants plodded in ankle deep dust and the trucks ground up and away head-ing out of it all. Or in the second sentence: Suzanne waited for him to go and Larry puffed at his pipe. This same transposition can be performed on the Ukrainian variants of both sentences. Cf. 1) Вантажні машини, буксуючи, обганяли всіх, а селяни брели по кісточки в пилюці. Or: Селяни брели по кісточки впилюці, а вантажні машини обганяли всіх. 2) Лері попихкував люльку, а Сузанна чекала на нього. — Сузанна чекала на нього, а Лері попихкував люльку. Apart from temporal determining meanings, copulated clauses may express additional support or justification of the action in the main clause, eg: I got the place with Harry and I like Burt fine. (Anderson) But after all I had to work and there was no work to be got. (Ibid.) Я працюватиму разом з Гаррі та ще я люблю там Берт. Зрештою, я мусив стати до роботи, а роботи не можна було ніде знайти. The place of the second clause ("and I like Burt fine") in the first sentence is fixed, because it presents an additional confirmation of the action in the first clause ("But I got a place with Harry"). If the place of clauses were changed, it would disrupt the (logic the content) of the sentence as a whole. Cf. *I like Burt fine and I got the place with Harry... No change of place/transposition of clauses is ever possible in the second sentence either. This is because of the justification contained in the second clause ("and there was no work to be got") which, when moved to the closing position, would make the sentence ungrammati-cal. "There was no other work to be got (and) / but after all I had to work". Beside that, the meaning of the conjunction "and" in Ukrainian is adversative (a), which is emphasised by the introductory "but" (af-ter all). The bulk of copulative clauses in English and Ukrainian, however have an adverbial implicit (sometimes almost explicit) determining meaning. These clauses are joined by different conjunctions which may often be treated as regular connectives that introduce subordinate clauses. The adverbial implicit meaning in compound sentences of this subtype may be single, i.e. pure (those of time, cause, purpose, result, conces-sion) or combined with other adverbial relations (such as cause and result, cause and consequence, time and result, time and cause, etc.) Among the single/simple determining adverbial relations expressed by the second clauses, joined by copulative conjunctions, the follow-ing are most occurrent: