The use of language in newspapers

 

b) EXPORT OF OLD MASTER HALTED

 

The Government has temporarily banned the export of an $8.1 million Old Master bought by a Dutch museum. The ban gives British buyers two months to raise the money for The Burgher of Delft and His Daughter by the 17th-century Dutch painter Jan Steen.

 

The painting, which hung in a Welsh castle for 150 years, was bought by the Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam. It is believed to be the most expensive purchase the Dutch museum has ever made.

 

By Galina Goumovskaya

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Unit 2

 

SCIENTIFIC PROSE STYLE

 

The purpose of science as a branch of human activity is to disclose by research the inner substance of things and phenomena of objective reality and find out the laws regulating them, thus enabling man to predict, control and direct their future development in order to improve the material and social life of mankind. The style of scientific prose is therefore mainly characterized by an arrangement of language means which will bring proofs to clinch a theory. The main function of scientific prose is proof. The selection of language means must therefore meet this principle requirement.

  The genre of scientific works is mostly characteristic of the written form of language (scientific articles, monographs or textbooks), but it may also be found in its oral form (in scientific reports, lectures, discussions at conferences, etc.); in the latter case this style has some features of colloquial speech.

The language of science is governed by the aim of the functional style of scientific prose, which is to prove a hypothesis, to create new concepts, to disclose the internal laws of existence, development, relations between different phenomena, etc. The language means used, therefore, tend to be objective, precise, unemotional, and devoid of any individuality; there is a striving for the most generalized form of expression.

The first and most noticeable feature of this style is the logical sequence of utterances with clear indication of their interrelations and interdependence, that is why in no other functional style there is such a developed and varied system of connectives as in scientific prose. The most frequently words used in scientific prose are functional words - conjunctions and prepositions. The first 100 most frequent words of this style comprises the following units:

a) prepositions: of, to, in, for, with, on, at, by, from, out, about, down;

b) prepositional phrases: in terms of; in view of, in spite of, in common with, on behalf of, as a result of; by means of, on the ground of, in case of;

c) conjunctional phrases: in order that, in case that, in spite of the fact that, on the ground that, for fear that;

d) pronouns: one, it, we, they;

e) notional words: people, time, two, like, man, made, years.

 

As scientific prose is restricted to formal situations and, consequently, to formal style, it employs a special vocabulary which consists of two main groups: words associated with professional communication and a less exclusive group of so-called learned words. The term “learned” includes several heterogeneous subdivisions of words. Here one can find numerous words that are used in scientific prose and can be identified by their dry, matter-of-fact flavour, for example, comprise, compile, experimental, heterogeneous, homogeneous, conclusive, divergent, etc. Another group of learned word comprises “literary” or “refined” words. They are mostly polysyllabic words drawn from the Romance languages and, though fully adapted to the English phonetic system, some of them continue to sound singularly foreign. Their very sound seems to create complex associations: deleterious, emollient, incommodious, meditation, illusionary.

A particularly important aspect of scientific and technological language is the subject-neutral vocabulary which cuts across different specialized domains. In particular, a great deal of scientific work involves giving instructions to act in a certain way, or reporting on the consequences of having so acted. Several lexical categories can be identified within the language of scientific instruction and narrative:

• Verbs of exposition: ascertain, assume, compare, construct, describe, determine, estimate, examine, explain, label, plot, record, test, verify.
• Verbs of warning and advising: avoid, check, ensure, notice, prevent, remember, take care; also several negative items: not drop, not spill.
• Verbs of manipulation: adjust, align, assemble, begin, boil, clamp, connect, cover, decrease, dilute, extract, fill, immerse, mix, prepare, release, rotate, switch on, take, weigh.
• Adjectival modifiers and their related adverbs: careful(y), clockwise, continuous(ly), final(ly), gradual(ly), moderate(ly), periodic(ally), secure(ly), subsequent(ly), vertical(ly).

 

The general vocabulary employed in scientific prose bears its direct referential meaning, that is, words used in scientific prose will always tend to be used in their primary logical meaning. Hardly a single word will be found here which is used in more than one meaning. Nor will there be any words with contextual meaning. Even the possibility of ambiguity is avoided.

Likewise neutral and common literary words used in scientific prose will be explained, even if their meaning is slightly modified, either in the context or in a foot-note by a parenthesis, or an attributive phrase.

A second and no less important feature and, probably, the most conspicuous, is the use of terms specific to each given branch of science. Due to the rapid dissemination of scientific and technical ideas, particularly in the exact sciences, some scientific and technical terms begin to circulate outside the narrow field they belong to and eventually begin to develop new meanings. But the overwhelming majority of terms do not undergo this process of determinization and remain the property of scientific prose. There they are born, develop new terminological meanings and there they die. No other field of human activity is so prolific in coining new words as science is. The necessity to penetrate deeper into the essence of things and phenomena gives rise to new concepts, which require new words to name them. A term will make more direct reference to something than a descriptive explanation, non-term. Furthermore, terms are coined so as to be self-explanatory to the greatest possible degree. But in spite of this, a new term in scientific prose is generally followed or preceded by an explanation.

In modern scientific prose one can observe an exchange of terms between various branches of science. It is due to the interpenetration of scientific ideas. Self-sufficiency in any branch is now a thing of the past. Collaboration of specialists in related sciences has proved successful in many fields. The exchange of terminology may therefore be regarded as a natural outcome of this collaboration. Mathematics has priority in this respect. Mathematical terms have left their own domain and travel freely in other sciences, including linguistics.

A third characteristic feature of scientific style is special sentence-patterns. They are of three types: postulatory, argumentative and formulative. A hypothesis, a scientific conjecture or a forecast must be based on facts already known, on facts systematized and defined. Therefore every piece of scientific prose will begin with postulatory statements which are taken as self-evident and needing no proof. A reference to these facts is only preliminary to the exposition of the writer’s ideas and is therefore summed up in precisely formulated statements accompanied, if considered necessary, by references to sources.

If all the wavelengths are mixed, a white light will be produced. (postulatory)

 This one-celled organism ate, grew, responded to its surroundings, reproduced itself, and spread throughout the oceans. All life has probably evolved from that single original cell. (argumentative)

Chemical energy is potential energy that is stored in gasoline, food or oil; mechanical energy is energy related to the movements of objects. (formulative)

 

The writer’s own ideas are also shaped in formulae, which are enunciation of a doctrine or theory of a principle, an argument, the result of an investigation, etc. The definition sentence-pattern in a scientific utterance, that is the sentence which sums up the argument, is generally a kind of clincher sentence:

Theoretical models represent their objects in more abstract ways; they are often based on assumptions about how something is structured, or how it might be related to other phenomena. These models are attempts to construct images of the object of study, i.e. images that hopefully make it easier to visualize, understand and analyze. Theoretical models are representations that are highly idealized and simplified; they are nevertheless useful conceptual tools.

Scientific material, although challenging in content, seems easy to read due to its grammatical and discourse structure. There is a number of central features of textual structure to present arguments transparently and coherently, distributing its information content in ways which make it seem accessible and digestible. Here are some of them:

 

Discourse Structure

 

• There is a balance between abstract and concrete points. General discussion alternates with accounts of experiments.
• The problems are explained as they arose over time. The reader is told how the thinking developed.
• Most paragraphs begin with a general thematic point, and later sentences elaborate. The theme of the next paragraph then drives from the previous one’s elaboration.
• A new element at the end of one sentence is often picked up as a given element at the beginning of the next, e.g. … one quantum. This quantum …
• The relations between the sentences and clauses are often made explicit through the use of connectives.
• The sentences usually have a cross-reference back to a preceding sentence or clause. This makes it clear that a given topic is still being discussed, and reduces the scope for vagueness.

 

Sentence Structure

 

• Sentences range from 7 to 52 words. This is typical of academic writing.
• Clauses have short subjects, with most of the information stated after the verb. Such sentences are much easier to understand than alternative.
• Points of contrast are rhetorically balanced, using such devices as the more, the less.
• The passive constructions are a helpful way of ensuring a smooth flow of ideas, and are important in allowing objects to receive prominence within clause structure.

 

The syntax of scientific speech is characterized by the use of complete (non-elliptical) sentences, the use of extended complex and compound sentences without omission of conjunctions, as they enable the author to express the relations between the parts more precisely (as different from the asyndetic connection typical of colloquial speech), the use of bookish syntactic constructions with non-finite forms of the verb, the use of extended attributive phrases, often with a number of nouns as attributes to the head-noun, e.g. the germ plasma theory; the time and space relativity theory; the World Peace Conference; a high level consensus; the greenhouse effect; carbon dioxide emission; fossil fuel burning; deforestation problems.

 

A fourth observable feature of the style of modern scientific prose, and one that strikes the eye of the reader, is the use of quotations and references. These sometimes occupy as much as half a page. The references have a definite compositional pattern, namely, the name of the writer referred to, the title of the work quoted, the publishing house, the place and the year it was published, and the page of the excerpt quoted or referred to. One of the internationally recognized styles of bibliographic records is known as the Harvard System. It lists references in alphabetical order of authors names. Where there is more than one work by the same author, these are listed chronologically. If there is more than one work in the same year, a letter is added: 2004a, 2004b. The Harvard System has a number of different formats, depending on the type of references, for example, consider reference to a book, here the sequence is: Author’s name, initials; year of publication; title in italics; edition (if not the first); place of publication; publisher:

 Cruse A. (2000). Meaning in Language: An Introduction to Semantics and Pragmatics. Oxford & New York: Oxford University Press.

 

A fifth feature of scientific style, which makes it distinguishable from other styles, is the frequent use of foot-notes, not of the reference kind, but digressive in character. This is in full accord with the main requirement of the style, which is logical coherence of ideas expressed. Anything that seems to violate this requirement or seems not to be immediately relevant to the matter in hand but at the same time serves indirectly to back up the idea will be placed in a foot-note.

From the above one may conclude that a language is a code understood only by its users (speakers). Translation is a process of decoding a message in one code and encoding it in another which is understood by another group of users using a different code.

 

The impersonality of scientific writings can also be considered a typical feature of this style. The author of scientific works tends to sound impersonal, hence the use of the pronoun “WE” (instead of “I”), of impersonal constructions. This quality is mainly revealed in the frequent use of passive constructions. Scientific experiments are generally described in the Passive voice, for example, “Then acid was taken”, instead of “I (we) then took acid”.

In connection with the general impersonal tone of expression, it should be noted that impersonal passive construction are frequently used with the verbs suppose, assume, presume, conclude, infer, point out, etc., as in “It should be pointed out”, “It must not be assumed”, “It must be emphasized”, “It can be inferred”, etc.

 

The characteristic feature of scientific prose style is the use of typically bookish syntactic structures for example, the compound type of predicate: These gases are easy to control but they are persistent once emitted (= It is easy to control these gases, but it is hard to stop them when they come out); Deforestation is probably even harder to change (= It is even harder to change the situation when forests begin to disappear).

Another feature is the use of abstract nouns, gerundial, participial or infinitive constructions instead of the much simpler clauses with conjunctions: Apart from this, controlling emission of greenhouse gases would require huge increase in energy efficiency (= Besides, if we want to control the gases which come out when the air becomes warmer, we shall have to produce much more energy); Agreement to implement such huge projects would require overcoming differences between the countries (=If we want to agree to carry out such big projects, we shall have to change the situation when every country is different from another); The measures suggested are worth considering / require careful consideration (= It is necessary to think about what we have suggested).

 

There is a noticeable difference in the syntactical design of utterances in the exact sciences (mathematics, chemistry, physics, etc.) and in the humanities. The passive constructions frequently used in the scientific prose of the exact sciences are not indispensable in the humanities. This perhaps is due to the fact that the data and methods of investigations applied in the humanities are less objective. The necessity to quote the passages under observations and to amplify arguments seriously affects syntactical patterns. In the humanities some seemingly well-known statement may be and often is subjected to revaluation, whereas in the exact sciences much can be accepted without question and therefore needs no comment.

 

However emotiveness is not entirely or categorically excluded from scientific prose. There may be hypotheses, statements and conclusions which, being backed up by strong belief, therefore call for the use of some emotionally-coloured words. Our emotional reaction to facts and ideas may bear valuable information, as it itself springs from the inner qualities of these facts and ideas. We depend to no small degree upon our emotional reactions for knowledge of the outer world. In modern scientific prose emotional words are very seldom used. At least they are not constituents of the modern scientific style. Nor can we find emotional structures or stylistic devices which aim at rousing aesthetic feelings. But scientific prose style uses special emphatic constructions to lay logical stress on some part of the sentence: It is not solely from water that oxygen is to be obtained (= we can get oxygen not only from water). It is on these terms that the company would be prepared to conclude an agreement (= The company will conclude an agreement only on these conditions).

 

Activities

 

Questions:

1. What is the aim of scientific prose functional style?

2. How would you explain the fact that there is a developed system of connectives in scientific prose?

3. Characterize the vocabulary of scientific style.

4. Why is science prolific in coining new words?

5. Give a definition if term. What are the peculiarities of the semantics of terms?

6. What types of special sentence-patterns are used in scientific prose?

7. Describe syntactic patterns used in science.

8. What is a compositional pattern of references in accord with the Harvard System?

9. What is a foot-note?

10. What language means are used in scientific prose to keep the impersonal tone of expression?

 

Exercises

 

Exercise 1. Read a piece of scientific writing. Comment on the grammar patterns used.

 

Structure of Matter

The atom of any elementary substance consists of a positively-charged nucleus and electrons, negatively-charged particles surrounding the nucleus. The charge of an electron e is equal to 4.8029 x 10-10 electro-static units. The mass of an electron is about 1,840 times smaller than atomic mass unit and is equal to 9.108 x 10-28 g. The absolute value of the electron charge is called the elementary (smallest) charge. The atomic nucleus is about 10,000 – 100,000 times smaller than the atom (the linear dimension of an atom is about 10^-8 cm and that of the nucleus – 10^-13 to 10^-12 cm). Nearly all the mass of an atom is concentrated in its nucleus which is positively charged. The charge of a nucleus is determined by the number of protons it contains. This number is called the atomic number of the element and is denoted by Z. Z coincides with the number of the place the element occupies in the Periodic Table. When in the normal state, the atom is neutral; this means that the number of its positively charged particles is equal to the number of electrons. For example, the nuclear charge of lithium (Z = 3) is equal to three positive charge units, hence the atom contains three electrons. Iron occupies the 26th place in the Periodic Table and has 26 electrons and a positive charge of 26 elementary charges. Attractive forces act between the positively charged nucleus and negatively charged electrons. The electrons are able to keep their orbit, if they do not receive additional energy.

 

Exercise 2. The italicized words and word-groups in the following extracts belong to scientific style. Describe the stylistic peculiarities of each extract in general and state to what professional activity the italicized units belong.

 

a) “ … I want you to keep an eye on that air-speed indicator. Remember that an airplane stays in the air because of its forward speed. If you let the speed drop too low, it stalls – and falls out of the air. Any time the ASI shows a reading near 120, you tell George instantly. Is that clear?” – “Yes, Captain. I understand.” – “Back to you, George... I want you to unlock the autopilot – it’s clearly marked on the control column – and take the airplane yourself ... George, you watch the artificial horizon … Climb and descent indicator should stay at zero.” (From Runway Zero-Eight by A. Hailey, J. Castle)

  b) Mr. Claud Gurney’s production of The Taming of the Shrew shows a violent ingenuity. He has learnt much from Mr. Cochran; there is also a touch of Hammersmith in his ebullient days. The speed, the light, the noise, the deployment of expensively coloured figures … amuse the senses and sometimes divert the mind from the unfunny brutality of the play, which evokes not one natural smile. (From a theatrical review)

c) It was none other than Grimes, the “Utility” outfielder, Connie had been forced to use in the last game because of the injury to Joyce – Grimes whose miraculous catch in the eleventh inning had robbed Parker of a home run, and whose own homer – a fluky one – had given the Athletics another World’s Championship. (From Short Stories by R. Lardner)

 

By Galina Goumovskaya

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Unit 3

GENERAL NOTES ON FUNCTIONAL SТYLES OF LANGUAGE

 

The object of lingo-stylistics is the study of the nature, functions and structures of stylistic devices (SD) and expressive means (ЕМ) оn the оnе hand, and the study of the functional styles, оn the other. А functional style of language is а system of interrelated language means which serves а definite aim in communication. А functional style is thus to bе regarded as the product of а certain concrete task set bу the sender of the message. Functional styles арреаr mainly in the literary standard of а language.