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Electoral System in the U.K.

The House of Commons is the only chamber in Parliament that is elected at General Elections:

1. General Elections are held every 5 years.
2. The U.K. is divided into 646 (2005) constituencies (electoral districts). The constituencies do not coincide with counties. Each constituency has the same average number of people – 60 000 – and elects one member to the House of Commons.
3. The candidates may be nominated by different parties of there may be so-called “independents” (candidates that do not belong to any party). The candidate who wins the majority of the votes (it does not have to be over 50%, but merely more votes than any of the other candidates individually has won) wins the elections.
4. The party that wins the majority of the votes becomes the leading party and its leader becomes Prime Minister and forms the Government (the Cabinet). The party that comes second becomes the official opposition. Such system is called “the majority system” or “first-past-the-post” system and is considered to be unfair because it gives little chance to small parties to send their candidates to the Commons while the system of proportional representation aims to give each party the proportion of seats in Parliament corresponding to the proportion of votes it received at General Elections.
5. All parties publish their manifestos before General Elections. They are intended to tell the electorate what the party would do if it formed the next Government.
6. The British citizens may vote provided they are aged 18. If they are/live abroad (less than 15 years) they can vote in a British embassy or by post.
7. The voting is on the same day (usually Tuesday) in all the constituencies from 7 a.m. till 9 p.m. Elections are held by secret ballot.
8. By-elections can be held:
• as a result of elevation of an MP to the House of Lords;
• when a vacancy occurs as a result of death or resignation of an MP or if he can no longer be an MP. 
   
  14.) Give a general survey of the organization of the educational system of GB commenting the public and private sector and the main types of schools. The comprehensive school and its advantages. Discuss briefly the organization of further education in GB and the main types of universities (3). The role of UCAS in advising the school graduates to choose the appropriate university

Aims: raise standards at all ability levels; give parents a wider choice o schools; improve the partnership between schools and parents;…

Comprehensive school admit children of all abilities in a given area and provide a wide range of different cources.

Three bodies are responsible for the education service:

1. The Department of Education and Science (DES) – is concerned with the formation of national policies for education and minimum national standard for education;
2. Local Education Authorities (LEAs) – is responsible for the provisions (buildings, materials, equipment) and day-to-day running of the schools and colleges in their area and the recruitment and payment of the teachers;
3. schools – decide on textbooks, timetable and methods of teaching.

The Education reform Act of 1998 introduced the National Curriculum. It is compulsory in all state schools in England, Wales and Northern Ireland (Scotland has its own curriculum). The Curriculum specifies what children must study and what they are expected to know at different ages. It places greater emphasis on the more practical aspects of education. It also determines how performance will be assessed and reported.

The Curriculum is based around:

• core subjects (English, mathematics and science (biology, chemistry, etc.);
• foundation subjects (technology, history, geography, music, art, physical education and modern foreign languages).

There are 4 key stages of education:

KS 1 – 5 – 7 years; KS 1 – 7 – 11 years; KS 1 – 11 – 14 years; KS 1 – 14 – 16 years.

The children are tested at the end of each stage and it is called “the programme of Records of Achievements”.

Compulsory education begins at 4 in Northern Ireland, at 5 in England, Wales and Scotland. The pupils stay at school until 16, about 9% remain until 18 (voluntarily).

The classes are usually held between Monday and Friday. The school year is divided into 3 terms. In England and Wales it begins in September and ends in July. In Scotland and Northern Ireland it begins in mid-August and ends in June.

Every school has a governing body (a board of governors – members of the LEA, politicians, members of the local community, teachers and parents) that manages the budget and recruits teachers.

There are also Parent Teacher Associations (PTA) – to develop partnership between home and school.

Types of schools:

• state schools (free of charge):
1. county schools (maintained by LEAs);
2. grant-maintained schools (receive funding directly from the central government, are independent of LEAs);
3. voluntary schools (Church of England schools, Church of Wales schools, Roman Catholic schools)
• private schools (fees are payable).

2. Nursery and Primary Education Nursery education: About 50% of the children from 3 to 5 receive nursery education. Parents who have a four year old child are entitled to Nursery Vouchers worth 1000 pounds sterling. These vouchers can be used in any state, voluntary or private school, playground or nursery. Nursery education is not compulsory though.

Types of nursery schools:

1. Nursery school attached to primary school (play activity of educational kind);
2. Pre-school playgrounds organized by parents – children go there a couple of times a week in the morning or afternoon.

Primary education:

Types of primary schools:

1. Infant schools – age 5 – 7 – development of expression, ability to concentrate;
2. Junior schools – age 7 – 11 – education becomes more formal, more concerned with making children interested than with traditional instruction, competitiveness is not encouraged.

3. Secondary School

Secondary education is compulsory up to the age of 16, but the pupils may stay until 18 if they want to.

Types of primary schools:

1. Comprehensive schools (take children of all abilities):

teach children 11-18; teach children 11-16; teach children  12/13/14-18

2. Secondary modern schools (children are selected on the basis of their abilities, these schools give more general education) – teach children 11-16(18).
3. Grammar schools (offer academic courses for selected students) – teach children 11-18.
4. Technical schools (place emphasis on technical subjects) – teach children 11-18.

Exams/Qualifications: Children are tested in reading, writing and use of number at the age of 5 (before they go to school). Children are tested at the end of every key stage (7, 11, 14, 16) At the age of 16: GCSE (General Certificate of Secondary Education) – is intended to assess pupils’ ability to apply their knowledge, this exam does not allow to enter university, but allows to start work or enter some vocational courses (A – the highest mark, G – the lowest mark, U – unclassified); GNVQ (General Certificate Vocational Qualifications) – taken at 14 or 16 in such areas as business, manufacturing, health, social care, design, information technology, tourism, engineering, gives chance to pursue work-related skill studying part-time in workplaces. At the age of 18 – GSE A-level (General Certificate of Education Advanced level) – is the main standard to enter higher education and many forms of professional training.

4. Independent (Public) Schools

Independent schools are known as “public schools” though they receive no state funding.

1. Significance: Today these schools are the most expensive ones that almost entirely depend on the fees paid by their pupils’ parents. The parents who buy a place in a private school are buying a ticket to success for their child. Such schools have produced Britain’s most distinguished leaders, they produce leaders in all spheres (judges, directors of banks and insurance companies, MPs, etc.). The schools are often hereditary clubs for the rich and influential. Being in public schools boys acquire good connections that help them in the future.
2. Characteristics:
• Parents who wish to send their children to a public school often send them first to a preparatory school (for children aged 8-13) which prepare children for Common Examination for Entrance to Public Schools (strict selection) at the age of 13.
• Most of the public schools are boarding schools where pupils live as well as study. Most of them are boys’ schools, though some are for girls and some are co-educational.
• Public schools do not have to teach the National Curriculum, education is traditional and academic. The schools prepare pupils fro universities (mainly Cambridge and Oxford). They have small classes and high standards of education. They develop sense of duty, obedience and ability to exercise power.

5. Post-school and Higher Education Post-school education: After school children can go to colleges of further education: Sixth-form colleges (academic and non-academic education)– teach children 16-18; Tertiary colleges (academic courses + vocational courses) – teach children 16-18; General colleges; Vocational colleges (music, art, etc.); Technical colleges.

These colleges do not have degree-awarding power but provide courses leading to degrees validated by the universities. 
Post-school education:

After school children can go to colleges of further education:

• Sixth-form colleges (academic and non-academic education)– teach children 16-18;
• Tertiary colleges (academic courses + vocational courses) – teach children 16-18;
• General colleges;
• Vocational colleges (music, art, etc.);
• Technical colleges.

These colleges do not have degree-awarding power but provide courses leading to degrees validated by the universities.

Higher education:

Higher education is mostly provided by universities.Former polytechnics became Universities under the Education Reform Act 1998 and Futher and Higher Education Act 1992.

Entrance requirements for degree cources are set by the universities.Applications for undergraduate courses are delt with by UCAS(the Universities and Colleges Admission Service)

Admission is by examination or selection (interviews). Applications for places are sent to the Universities and Colleges Admission Service (UCAS). An applicant can list up to 5 universities or colleges in order of preference. The UCAS sends a copy to each of the universities and colleges. If the applicants fulfill the conditions they are accepted.

History:

The first universities were set up in medieval times and Tudor times: Oxford (1167), Cambridge (1209), St. Andrew’s (1411). London University was founded in 1828 and is the largest traditional university in the country. The rapid growth of the cities in the 19^th century led to the establishment of so-called “red-brick” Universities (in Bristol, Manchester, Birmingham, etc.). All these universities offer a full range of courses.

Open University – is a special type of university. It was founded in 1969 and is the Britain’s largest non-traditional university (210 000 students).It has to do with distance learning and is open to all people. There are no entry qualifications except a minimum age of 18. People who study there are making up for missed opportunities or gaining extra qualifications. They study at home:

• course materials are sent by post;
• there are special educational TV and radio programmes;
• use of modern technology: Internet-classes, CD libraries, etc.;
• sometimes face-to-face tutorials and examinations.
• Universities are autonomous and enjoy complete academic freedom. They appoint their own staff, determine the length and the content of their courses and decide which students to admit.
• Universities are funded by several government agencies (the Higher Education Funding Council) and by tuition fees they get from students. The fees are related to parents’ income. Students form poor families are exempt from fees. Sometimes loans for education are available. But still many capable young people from poor families find it difficult or impossible to get a place at a university (government’s goal – to help with grants and fee-costs).In Scotland students do not pay fees.After they graduate and their income reaches a specified level they will be taxed to cover the cost of the education.Each university sets the fees for postgraduates and overseas students
• Administration:
1. The Chancellor – is head of a university, he presides at the meetings of the council and degree-giving ceremonies;
2. The Vice- Chancellor – is the chief officer responsible for day-to-day management of a university;
3. The Council – the main governing body that consists of academic staff, non-academic staff (members of the local community) and a number of students, and is responsible for staff appointments and promotion;

Other 50 per cent of Council members are distinguished people.

• Most courses last 3 or 4 years (medical and veterinary- 5 years). The academic year is divided into 3 terms and begins in autumn. Universities are usually campus-based (halls of residence, libraries, entertainment places, etc.).
• Degrees/undergraduate qualifications:

* BA (Bachelor of Arts)/ BS (Bachelor of Science)/ BE (Bachelor of Education);

* MA (Master of Arts)/ MS (Master of Science)/ ME (Master of Education);

* PhD (Doctor of Philosophy)

Postgraduate courses may be taught courses, research courses or combination of both. Qualifications include diplomas, certificates,master degrees or doctorates.

At present there are 89 universities and 60 other higher educational institutions,which provide courses leading to degrees validated by the universities

 
15.) Give a general survey of the main 8 economic regions of the U.K., the main cities of each region

The South industrial and Agricultural region, Central England or the Midlands, Lancashire, Yorkshire and North England. Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland are also regarded as independent economic regions of the UK. The whole country consists of 8 economic regions.

The South industrial and Agricultural region:

It’s the most important region in the country in terms of industry, agriculture and population. The region includes all the South of England, both the South East and the South West.

The South is a region of various industries and of intensive agriculture. At the centre of everything is the city of London. Today about 6.7 million people live in Greater London. The great advantage is the port, that’s why people living in Greater London and its surrounding area provide a market for many imported goods, especially foodstuffs. The oldest industrial areas are near the city centre. Here industries such as clothing, furniture making and jewellery have tended to cluster in small distinct areas. The building of the docks led to the development of such typical port industries, as oil refining, steel-making. paper-making, etc., London’s industries are extremely varied, among them electrical engineering, instrument production, radio engineering, the motor car industry.

The other towns and cities, situated to the north of the Thames and connected with the capital in industrial specialization are Oxford, Cambridge and Luton. Oxford is a leading educational centre. Cambridge is also best known for its ancient university,which has an international reputation for scientific research, facilities for high technology research and highly trained labour. Luton  became famous for  industry.Luton became the country’s leading hat-making town, straw from the local crops furnishing the raw material.

Bristol is a major centre of non-ferrous metallurgy, aircraft and automobile industry , military hardware

The south is a major agricultural region of Great Britain. Agricultural specialization is different in the South West and South East and East. There is farming. Hence, dairying is the main farming activity here. Oats and barley make up the principal cereal. In the south-west-growing vegetables and flowers, in the east-farming, more than 90 per cent of farmland is occupied with wheat and barley ,in the south-market gardening and fruit farming.

The Midlands:

is  situated in the centre of GB between the South Industrial and Agricultural region in the south and Lancashire and Yorkshire in the north. It is one of Britain’s leading industrial regions. West Midlands includes Birmingham(known as Black Country, there are iron industry, engineering and the finishing metals, hardware, the motor industry ,jewellery manufacture. It’s the industrial capital of the Midlands, the city is a major producer of consumer goods.),Coventry(trading in wool, making woolen cloths, the metal working and engineering industry, the silk industry,it’s the centre of the British motor industry),Wolverhampton(heavy engineering, matal founding, tyre production).

A great deal of the region Midlands is under grass, the principal crops are wheat, along with potatoes and sugar beet, and a great variety of vegetables is produced

Lancashire and Yorkshire:

Are situated to the north of the Midlands.

Lancashire is a historic centre of British industry.2 major centres in this region: Merseyside(cotton industry, there is a leading port, chemical industry, the motor car industry, shipbuilding and ship repairing, glass manufacture) and Greater Manchester(txtile industry, it’a a commercial city, clothing manufacture, engineering, agriculture.

The economy of Yorkshire was always closely connected with wool. North Yorkshire is mainly a rural farming region. Barley and wheat are major crops. In Yorkshire there are 3 main industrial centres: the south Yorkshire, the north Y.,the west Y.

North England:

2 main centres of industrial activity: one situated in the north-east and the other in the north-west.(the most important, which includes Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Sunderland and Teesside. There are iron industry, finishing industry,s hipbuilding, electrical engineering, coal mining, the chemical industry, agriculture)

Wales:

South Wales is the main area of industrial activity, it’s coalfield region. Also there are iron and steel industry, manufacture of non-ferrous metals. Cardiff is the largest city in South Wales, the national capital  and business centre, there are coal mining and iron industries. In general, Wales, faces serious social and economis problems, caused by the depression of its traditional industries.

Scotland:

Divided into 3 parts: the Scottish Highlands, the Southern Uplands,(there is rainfall, sheep, beef cattle),the Central Lowlands(the Glasgow is in the centre of industrial activity, there are manufacturing, textile and clothing production, there is farming)

New Towns(electronics)

Edinburgh(heavy industry, paper manufacture, because it’ a a university city)

The region Scotland is beset by the decline of the traditional industries which has led to high unemployment. The main activities are coal mining, steel production and shipbuilding.

Northern Ireland:

Farming, shipbuilding and the manufacture of textiles(in the 1050s)

The textile industry came to depend almost entirely on linen which was made from flax grown in the province.NI has one of the largest concentrations of man-made fibre production in Western Europe. The engineering industry has been dominated by shipbuilding. With the introduction of iron ships, the industry was forced to import from Britain most of its rawmaterials, including coal, iron and steel.

Belfast-a major centre of textile manufacture, shipbuilding, aircraft production, electrical engineering and food processing.

Londondery-besides its textile and clothing industries, flour milling and bacon curing are also developing.

 
16.) The causes and the consequences of the conflicts and division in Northern Ireland

The problem of Northern Ireland is closely connected with religion because the Irish people can be divided into 2 religious groups: Catholic and Protestants. At the same time it as clear that the lighting between these 2 groups is closely connected with the colonial past, in 1169 Henry 2 of England started an invasion of Ireland. Although a large part of Ireland came under the control of the invaders, there wasn't much direct control from England during the middle ages. In the 16th century Henry 6 of England quarreled with Rome and declared himself Head of the Anglican church, which was a protestant church. Ireland remained Catholic, and didn't accept the change. Henry 8 tried to force them to become Anglican. He also punished them by taking most of their land. This policy was continued by Elizabeth I. But the Irish Catholics never gave up their struggle for independence and their rights. At the end of the 18th century there was a mass rising against the English colonizers which was crushed by the English army and in 1801 a forced union was established with Britain. All through the 19th century the "Irish question" remained in the centre of British polities. After a long and bitter struggle the southern part of Ireland finally became a free State in l921. Ulster where the protestants were in majority remained part of the UK. The Irish free State declared itself a Republic in 1949 and is known as the Irish republic of Eire. It is completely independent and its capital is Dublin. Northern Ireland had its own Parliament at Stormont in Belfast and government which was responsible for its province's life. But from the beginning the parliament was in the hands of Protestants while the Catholics didn't have equal rights with the Protestants. In 1969 .conflict started between these 2 groups and so the British government closed the local parliament

and sent in die British army to keep the peace. But there were no peace. On he Catholic side is the Irish Republic Army which wants to achieve a united Ireland by terrorism and bombings. On the Protestant side there are also secret terrorist organizations.

The Northern Ireland Assembly of 108 members was restored in 1998. Elections to the Northern Ireland Assembly were held in November 2003.However many difficulties still exist' to make this local parliament a workable body because of the confrontation between the parties representing the Protestant and Catholic communities. The Northern Ireland Assembly was established as part of the Belfast Agreement and meets in Parliament Buildings. The Assembly is the prime source of authority for all devolved responsibilities and has full legislative and executive authority. Elections to the Northern Ireland Assembly took place on the 7th March 2007 and the Northern Ireland Assembly was restored on the 8th of May 2007