Контрольная работа по «Английскому языку»

1.) Describe the geographical position of the British Isles, offering an explanation of its advantages and disadvantages. Define  the term “continental shelf”, its importance for the economy

The BI are situated on the continental shelf off the north-west coast of Europe.

From the European continent the British Isles are separated by the E. Channel and the North Sea.BI is washed by: Atlantic ocean (west), The North Sea(east)

GB and Ireland are separated by the Irish Sea and 2 straits: the North Channel+ St. George’s Channel

-the total area: 322,246 sqkm

-population:60 million people(one of the most densely populated parts of the earth’s surface)

Britain formally known as the Ukingdom of GB and NI. It comprises the mainland of England, Wales, and Scotland (GB) and the northern part of Ireland. The southern part of Ireland, the second largest island of the group is the Irish Republic.

-the UK’s area-244,100sqkm.

1)Off the north-western coast of GB-group of islands-the Hebrides(Inner and Outer)-separated from each other by the sea of the Hebrides and the Little Minch.

2)separated from the mainland by the Pentland  Firth- the Orkney Islands.

3)The Shetland Islands –about 100km north of the Orkneys.

4)in the middle of the Irish Sea- the Isle of Man( is administrated by its own Manx Parliament.)The population is engaged in farming, fishing, tourist trade. The largest settlement is the holiday resort Douglas.

5)in the Irish Sea-Anglesey island(separated by the Menai Strait). It is a place of a very famous village with the longest place name in GB. The population engaged in local industry.

6)The Isle of Wight- in the E.Channel. Separated from the mainland by the Solent.

7)a tiny group of the Isles of Scilly- in the E. Channel.

8)the Channel Islands . To the French they are Known as the Isles Normandes. The form an archipelago and separated by shallow waters from northern France. The chief islands of the group-Jersey and Guernsey.

-the coastline of the BI is indentedàthere are many bays, harbors, peninsulas. The western coasts of Scotland and Wales- indented à this offers economic advantagesà the possibility to establish ports in this inlets.

The BI are of the continental origin. Once it was a part of Europe. But after melting of the snow it was separated by a shallow stretch of sea.

The zone of shallow water which surrounds the continent resembles a shelf above the deep water of the oceans- the continental shelf.

!!The advantageous geographical position of GB created good conditions for the development of shipping, trade and the economy.

Benefits of the Shelf:

1. fishing (warm water);
2. oil and natural gas deposits (platforms in the North Sea);
3. the Channel Tunnel (the depth of the water over the Tunnel is only 30m);

mild climate (shallow water gets warm during the day and never gets too cold during the night). 
 
2.) Give an account of geography of the British Isles describing the varied relief features. Examine the main rivers and lakes of Great Britain. Account for the chief mineral resources of GB

The relief is represented by Highlands, Lowlands, deep valleys, plains. The highest parts are in Scotland. North Wales, North of England and the central region of England.

England:

Mountains: The Pennines – “the backbone of England”, forms a watershed separating the west-flowing and east-flowing rivers of England; the highest point – Cross Fell (893m); The Cheviot Hills – form a natural border between England and Scotland; the highest point – the Cheviot (816m); The Cumbrian Mountains – famous for the Lake District; the highest point – Scafell (978m).

Plains: Salisbury Plain; The South-West Lowlands and Uplands (600m); The Midland Plains.

Rivers: The Thames (332km), The Trent (274km), The Ouse, the Humber, the Tees, the Tyne (flow into the North Sea); The Mersey, the Eden (flow into the Irish Sea).

Lakes: Windermere – the largest in England; Grasmere; Ullswater.

Wales:

Mountains: The Cambrian Mountains – famous for the Snowdon resort; the highest point – the Snowdon (1085m).

Rivers: The Severn (350m) – the longest in GB, begins in Wales, flows through England (flows into the Irish Sea); The Wye (flows into the Irish Sea).

Scotland:

Regions: The Highlands – take up 50% of the territory of Scotland but only 15% of the population lives here. The Highlands consist of the 3 parts: the Northern Highlands; the Glen More Depression; the Grampian Mountains – contains the highest peak of the British Isles – Ben Nevis (1347m); The Central Lowlands/the Midland Valley – take up only 15% of the territory of Scotland but 15% of the population lives here; The Southern Uplands.

Rivers: The Clyde (flows into the Irish Sea); The Tweed, the Forth, the Dee, the Tay (flow into the North Sea).

Lakes: Loch Lomond – the largest in GB; Loch Ness – the longest in the British Isles, famous for its monster;

Northern Ireland:

Mountains: The Antrim Mountains – comprise the famous Giant’s Causeway; The Sperrin Mountains; The Mourne Mountains.

Rivers: The Shannon (384m) – the longest on the British Isles;

Lakes: Lough Neagh – the largest in the British Isles.

Weather – a state of atmosphere over a short period of time.

Climate – average weather conditions over a long period of time.

Britain is an island country and the surrounding sea gives England a varied climate. The main influence on climate is the island’s close proximity to the Atlantic Ocean, its northern latitude, and the warming of the waters around the land by the Gulf Stream (a warm current of the northern Atlantic Ocean). Gulf Stream helps to keep winters milder compared with other landlocked nations with a similar latitude. The overall climate on British Isles is called temperate maritime. Winters are never too cold, summers are never too hot. The warmest months – July and August, the coldest – January and February.

Winter (Average t°= +3 – +5 °C; Normal t°= –10 °C)

Summer (Average t°= +12 – +17 °C; Normal t°= +25 – +30 °C)

Relief is the most important factor controlling the distribution of temperature and precipitation in Britain. The average annual rainfall in Britain is about 1,100 mm. But the geographical distribution of rainfall is largely determined by topography. Rainfall is fairly well distributed throughout the year, although March to June are the driest months and October to January are the wettest.

The distribution of sunshine shows a general decrease from south to north – the south has much longer periods of sunshine than the north.

Mineral Resources

The UK used to be a country of considerable amount of mineral resources (coal, iron ore, copper, lead, tin, etc.) but in the course of the last hundred years most of the deposits have been worked out. At the present moment the UK imports lots of raw materials (iron, zinc, nickel, chrome, copper), forest and half of its food.

Major Resources:

1. Coal (not as important now as it was before, it is replaced by oil and uranium) – was used as a fuel. Deposits: Yorkshire, Lancashire, Newcastle, Central Scotland (Glasgow) and Southern Wales (the Cambrian Mountains).
2. Oil and Gas – usually occur together; are used as fuel and in chemical industry. Oil and natural gas have been discovered in the 1950s on the Shelf in the North Sea. Since then many platforms have been built in the North Sea to take oil and natural gas ashore through the submarine pipelines.
3. Iron Ore – usually found in the areas of major coal basins.
4. Non-metallic Minerals:

• Common Rocks/Granite – used in house-building and road-making; deposits – Devon, Cornwall;

• Clay – used for the production of bricks;
• Chalk – used in cement industry; deposits – the Thames, the Humber;
• Salt – used for the production of chemicals, textile, in soap-making;

Sand and Gravel – found in the north of England and in Central Scotland. 
 
3.) Ancient Britain and the Celtic invasions 
3 000 B.C. – the Iberians/Neolithic (New Stone Age) People/Megalithic (Big Stone) People crossed the English Channel in small boats. They came from the Iberian Peninsula (territory of present-day Spain). They settled in Ireland and in the west of Great Britain (present-day Wales).

They lived in stone huts, knew the art of grinding and polishing the stone making the edges and points of it sharp. The are also referred to as “the Battle Axe People” as they invented a kind of battle axe made of stone. It is said that the Iberians started the construction of the Stonehenge

2 400 B.C. – the “Beaker Folk” came from the east of Europe and settled in the south-east of Britain. They are known for their fine pottery (beakers).

They were round-headed, strongly built and taller than the Iberians. They are also known for the first individual graves furnished with pottery and bronze tools that began to replace the stone ones.

1 000 B.C. – the Picts came from somewhere on the Continent and settled mainly in Scotland. Some scientists distinguish them as a separate group of Celtic origin that came independently, others think they were just a mixture of the Iberians and the Celts that arrived later.

The Picts were short, dark-hared, aggressive, covered all over with paintings and tatoos (that’s why the Romans called them “Pictus”, i.e. “painted”

The language of the Picts is a mystery. The scientists can easily split it into words and read but cannot decode it (cannot get the meanings of the words and the message of the texts).

700 B.C. – the Celts arrived from Central Europe pushing the local inhabitants into the territory of present-day Wales, Scotland and Ireland. They were tall, red-hared and blue-eye. There were 2 main Celtic tribes that settled in the British Isles:

1)Scots(first they settled in Ireland and then moved to Scotland and intermixed with the Picts) : The Gaelic Branch: Languages (Irish/Erse (Ireland), Scotch Gaelic (the Scottish Highlands), Manx (dead; the Isle of Man)

2) Britons(settled in the south-east of England). The Britonnic Branch: languages (Breton (Brittany, modern France), Welsh (Wales), . Cornish (dead; Cornwall).

The Celts also had their own ancient alphabet called Ogham (see details in the Internet).

The Celts were technologically advanced. They knew the how to work iron.

Celtic Life: The Celts were successive farmers. They introduced more advanced ploughing methods that made it possible to farm on heavier (solid) soils. The Celts introduced money in the form of iron bars, later (a Roman borrowing) – coins. 
 
4.) Roman and Anglo-Saxon conquests

Roman Invasion

55 B.C. – Julius Caesar attacked Britain. Reasons:

economic – Britain was an important food producer due to its mild climate + it was rich in raw materials (tin ore, corn, slaves) + Britain provided slaves for the Roman army;

political – the Romans fought with the Celts of Gaul on the continent who found shelter in Britain and were supported by the Celts of Britain. Soon after his arrival, Julius Caesar left Britain with many slaves and riches.

43 A.D. – Emperor Claudius conquered Britain and it became a province of the Roman Empire. The only area that caused much trouble was Caledonia (Scotland). The Romans spent more than 100 years trying to conquer it and failed. Finally, they decided to build a wall – Hadrian’s Wall – to keep pot the Celtic raiders from the north and to mark the border.

Roman Life: The Romans brought reading and writing skills and the Latin language to the British Isles. But only town-dwellers spoke the language of the Romans while in the villages the Celts used their Celtic dialects. The Romans established towns as centres of administration and civilisation. The Romans established London as the most important trading centre. The Romans built roads that continued to be used long after the Romans left Britain. The Roman control came to an end as the Roman Empire began to collapse. The Romans were gradually leaving the country going back home to protect the Empire. The left romanised Celt alone to fight the Scots in the north, the Irish in the west and the Anglo-Saxons that started to arrive from the mainland. 410 A.D. – the last Roman soldiers left Britain.

Anglo-Saxon Invasion

5th c. A.D. (430) – the Germanic tribes started to arrive to Britain. The were 3 powerful tribes that came in 3 waves:

1)Jutes(Origin-Nothern Denmark or Scandinavia)-settled Kent, Isle of Wight

2)Saxons( origin-Germany)-settled Sussex, Essex, Wessex

3)Angles(origin- Southern Denmark)- settled East Anglia, Mercia, Northumbria

These Germanic tribes pushed the Celts to Cornwall, Wales, Scotland and Ireland. The 3 tribes were very close in speech, customs and traditions and gradually merged into one nation called the Anglo-Saxons. 
 
5.) Describe Danish raids on England. The Struggle of Alfred the Great and its results 
At the beginning of the 9^th cent. Wessex became the most powerful kingdom in England. However, it began to face a most dangerous enemy. They were the Danes and Northmen frequently called as the Vikings. These 2 Scandinavian people were closely related with one another, but in the main the Danes were invaders of England.

The Vikings came in their large open rowboats from the Scandinavian coasts and from Jutland (Denmark) to the British Isles as pirates, bent on plunder, but later they came in larger numbers, conquering one territory after another. The Vikings were great seamen known widely around the world. They ploughed the seas and oceans on their long-ships with their great square sail.

By the 60s of the 9^th cent. they began to attack east England conquering one territory after another. The kingdom of Wessex alone was left to resist them. Fortunately, there appeared a Saxon king to resist them. This was Alfred born 849.

At first fortune was not on his side, but eventually he gathered his men and defeated the Danes. As a result England was divided into 2 parts by a line drawn from London to Chester: the Dane-law and Saxon England.

Much effort was undertaken to fortify English towns and villages. He built many ships to keep off the Danes from English shores. He is considered to be the founder of the English fleet.

 
6.) Outline the Norman Conquest and the establishment of feudalism in England and further consolidation of the English state. The main dates in the formation of the U.K 
The Norman conquest of England began in 1066 with the invasion of the Kingdom of England by the troops of William, Duke of Normandy, and his victory at the Battle of Hastings. This resulted in Norman control of England, which was firmly established during the next few years.

The Norman Conquest was a pivotal event in English history for several reasons. It largely removed the native ruling class, replacing it with a foreign, French-speaking monarchy, aristocracy, and clerical hierarchy духовенство. This, in turn, brought about a transformation of the English language and the culture of England.

By subjecting the country to rulers originating in France it linked England more closely with continental Europe, while lessening Scandinavian influence, and set the stage for a rivalry with France that would continue intermittently for many centuries.

The Norman Conquest is associated with the establishment of feudalism. The system of serfdom was imposed.

The king owned all or most of the land and gave it to his leading nobles in return for their loyalty and military service. The nobles in turn held land that peasants, including serfs, were allowed to farm in return for the peasants' labor and a portion of their produce. Under feudalism, people were born with a permanent position in society.

The written record of a census and survey of English landowners and their property made by order of William the Conqueror in 1085-1086 is known as the Domesday Book. According this register > 2 mln people lived in England. 90 % of the populations were serfs.

Unique features of feudalism:

• The system reached a higher regularity than elsewhere;
• The king’s power was greater than barons;
• The power of the state was built around the king’s power and the big lords had to accept it whether they liked it or not.

1066 - Death of Edward the Confessor in January, Harold II accedes to the English throne. Norman invasion and conquest of England, Harold II is killed and William the Conqueror becomes King of England.

1071 - Norman conquest of England complete

1096 - First crusade (крестовый поход) begins

1266 - Western Isles acquired by Scotland

1468 - Orkney and Shetland Islands acquired from Norway by Scotland

1536 –  Henry VIII brought Wales under the English parliament through special Acts of Union.

16th century, legislation had united England and Wales.

1603 - the crowns of England and Scotland had been united

The 1707 Acts of Union were passed by the Parliaments of England and Scotland, forming the United Kingdom of Great Britain.

1800 - Great Britain was united with Ireland through another Act of Union to become the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.

 

7.)The English Bourgeois Revolution. The Restoration. The “Glorious” Revolution. 
       The First English Civil War broke out in 1642, largely as a result of an ongoing series of conflicts between James' son, Charles I, and Parliament. The defeat of the Royalist army by the New Model Army of Parliament at the Battle of Naseby in June 1645 effectively destroyed the king's forces. Charles surrendered to the Scottish army at Newark. He was eventually handed over to the English Parliament in early 1647. He escaped, and the Second English Civil War began, although it was a short conflict, with the New Model Army quickly securing the country. The capture and subsequent trial of Charles led to his beheading in January 1649 at Whitehall Gate in London, making England a republic. The trial and execution of Charles by his own subjects shocked the rest of Europe (the king argued to the end that only God could judge him) and was a precursor of sorts to the beheading of Louis XVI 145 years later.

The New Model Army, under the command of Oliver Cromwell, then scored decisive victories against Royalist armies in Ireland and Scotland. Cromwell was given the title Lord Protector in 1653, making him 'king in all but name' to his critics. After he died in 1658, his son Richard Cromwell succeeded him in the office but he was forced to abdicate within a year. For a while it looked as if a new civil war would begin as the New Model Army split into factions. Troops stationed in Scotland under the command of George Monck eventually marched on London to restore order.

Restoration of the monarchy. The monarchy was restored in 1660, with King Charles II returning to London.

In 1665, London was swept by a visitation of the plague, and then, in 1666, the capital was swept by the Great Fire, which raged for 5 days, destroying approximately 15,000 buildings. After the Restoration, there was an overall reduction in the power of the crown, and by the 18th century England rivaled the Netherlands for being one of the freest countries in Europe.

The Glorious Revolution. In 1680, the Exclusion crisis occurred due to widespread objections to a Catholic serving as the King of England, since James was the apparent heir to Charles, who was the king at that time. After the death of Charles II in 1685, his Catholic brother King James II & VII was crowned. From that point, there were various factions pressing for the Dutch Protestant Prince William of Orangeand his wife, Mary, to replace King James II in what became known as the Glorious Revolution.

In November 1688, William landed in England with an invading force, and succeeding in being crowned king. After this, James attempted to retake the throne by force in the Williamite War, and was finally defeated by William at the Battle of the Boyne in 1690.

In December 1689, one of the most important constitutional documents in English history, the Bill of Rights, was passed. The Act, which restated and confirmed many provisions of the earlier Declaration of Right, established restrictions on the royal prerogative. It provided, amongst other things, that the Sovereign could not suspend laws passed by Parliament, levy taxes without parliamentary consent, infringe the right to petition, raise a standing army during peacetime without parliamentary consent, deny the right to bear arms to Protestant subjects, unduly interfere with parliamentary elections, punish members of either House of Parliament for anything said during debates, require excessive bail or inflict cruel and unusual punishments. William was opposed to the imposition of such constraints, but he chose not to engage in a conflict with Parliament and agreed to abide by the statute.

In parts of Scotland and Ireland, Catholics loyal to James remained determined to see him restored to the throne, and there followed a series of bloody though unsuccessful uprisings. As a result of these, any failure to pledge loyalty to the victorious King William was severely dealt with. The most infamous example of this policy was the Massacre of Glencoe in 1692. Jacobite rebellions continued on into the mid-18th century until the son of the last Catholic claimant to the throne, (James III & VIII), mounted a final campaign in 1745. The Jacobite forces ofPrince Charles Edward Stuart, the "Bonnie Prince Charlie" of legend, were defeated at the Battle of Culloden in 1746.

 
7.)The  English Bourgeois Revolution. The Restoration. The “Glorious” Revolution. 
The English Civil War (known as Bourgeois Revolution ) (1642–1649) was a series of armed conflicts and political machinations between Parliamentarians and Royalists. The first (1642–46) and second (1648–49) civil wars pitted the supporters of King Charles I against the supporters of the Long Parliament, while the third war (1649–51) saw fighting between supporters of King Charles II and supporters of the Rump Parliament. The Civil War ended with the Parliamentary victory at the Battle of Worcester on 3 September 1651.

The Civil War led to the trial and execution of Charles I, the exile of his son, Charles II, and replacement of English monarchy with first, the Commonwealth of England(1649–53), and then with a Protectorate (1653–59), under Oliver Cromwell's personal rule. The monopoly of the Church of England on Christian worship in England ended with the victors consolidating the established Protestant Ascendancy in Ireland. Constitutionally, the wars established the precedent that an English monarch cannot govern without Parliament's consent, although this concept was legally established only with the Glorious Revolution later in the century.

The Commonwealth of England was the republic which ruled first England, and then Ireland and Scotland from 1649 to 1660. Between 1653-1659 it was known as the Commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland. After the English Civil War and the execution of Charles I, the republic's existence was initially declared byAn Act declaring England to be a Commonwealth by the Rump Parliament, on 19 May 1649. Executive power had already been entrusted to a Council of State. The government during 1653 to 1659 is properly called The Protectorate, and took the form of direct personal rule by Oliver Cromwell and, after his death, his son Richard, as Lord Protector; this arrangement led to the state being labelled a "crowned republic". The term Commonwealth is, however, loosely used to describe the system of government during the whole of 1649 to 1660, when England was de facto, and arguably de jure, a republic (or, to monarchists, under the English Interregnum).