Великобритания

GREAT BRITAIN

United Kingdom (Great Britain), Britain, United Kingdom of great Britain and Northern Ireland (United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland) - is the state in North-West Europe, the British Isles (the largest island of great Britain), North-Eastern part of the island of Ireland, ve Isle of man, the island of Wight, channel and other small Islands. Is separated from the continent Straits channel and Pas-de-Calais. Area 244,11 thousand km2. Population 60.7 million people (2007). Capital - London.  
Major cities and agglomerations in the UK: greater London, Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Sheffield, Bradford, Liverpool, Edinburgh, Manchester, Bristol.  
Polity UK 
Great Britain is a constitutional monarchy (but formally the Constitution is missing, there are a number of major legislative acts). The head of state is the Queen. Legislative power is a Queen and a bicameral Parliament (house of lords and house of Commons). Executive power is headed by the Prime Minister is the leader of the party which won most votes in the house of Commons and forming the government. Great Britain heads the Sodruzhestvo (Commonwealth), including 53 countries. 
Administrative and polity UK 
 
The country consists of four administrative and political divisions (history of national regions): England (39 counties, 6 Metropolitan counties and special administrative unit of greater London), Wales (8 counties), Scotland (12 regions: 9 districts and 3 insular territories) and Northern Ireland (26 districts). 
Isle of man and channel Islands are independent administrative entities. Ownership of the UK: in Europe, Gibraltar, in America, Anguilla, Bermuda, the British virgin Islands (British), Cayman Islands, Montserrat, Turks and Caicos Islands, Falkland Islands (Malvinas) in Africa, St. Helena island, in the Pacific island of Pitcairn.  
The population of the state 
About 80% of the population of the UK are British, 15% - the Scots, Welsh , kornualze and Irish; about 5% of the population are immigrants from the CIS countries. The British are descendants of the Anglo-Saxons and Normans; the Scots, Irish, Welsh and kornualze - descendants of the Celts. English is the official language. 
The British - adherents of the official Anglican Church, the Scots, mainly Presbyterian, Irish, mostly Catholics. A small number of Catholics and adherents close to the Catholicism of the High Church of England. The most densely populated Central and South East England, the least - regions of Northern Scotland and Central Wales. The high degree of urbanization; live in cities 89.4% of the population. Nearly 1/2 of the population lives in large cities (with the population over 100 including). On the territory of the country was formed 8 major urban conurbations with a population over 1 million people, which accounts for over 1/3 of the population of the country. The average population density 245,5 people/km2 (data from 2003).  
The Nature Of The UK 
Great Britain is washed by the Atlantic ocean and its seas - the North and Irish, Straits channel, Pas-de-Calais, Northern and St George. The coastline is strongly divided bays (fjords in the North and South), forms a significant Peninsula Wales and Cornwall. Between the four historical regions, there are significant geographical differences. Scotland and Northern England is mountainous and geographically is a High Britain - Northern highlands (, Ben Nevis, 1343 m, the highest point of the UK), South Scottish hill, Valais and the Cambrian mountains, the lake district in the Northwest of England. Characterized by smooth plateau tops and flat intersected slopes, in the North survived the glacial forms of a relief. From High Britain Low separates the notional line, which runs in a South-westerly direction from Newcastle in the mouth of the R. mystery to Exeter at the mouth of the R. of Former South Devon. In the South and South-East Low Britain - hilly plain (London pool and others), framed кустовыми ridges, the typical landscape of the «good old England». The climate is temperate oceanic and humid, with mild winter and cool summer (the influence of the Gulf stream). The average temperature in January 3-7 degrees C, July 11-17 °C. Precipitation on the plains of 600-750 mm, in the mountains 1000-3000 mm per year, often there are maybe drizzling rains and fogs. The Western part of the country gets a few more precipitation than the Eastern. 
A dense network of rivers (Thames, the Severn and others), many of which are connected by channels, often out of date. In Scotland and Ireland, many lakes (Loch ness, Loch Lomond in Scotland and others, Laugh neigh in Northern Ireland). In the mountains dominated peat lands, heaths, used as pasture for sheep. Forests (oak, beech, birch) are located in 9% of the country. Plain occupied farmland and meadows and is densely populated. Numerous national nature reserves and parks for recreational use (Peak district, and Snowdonia and others).

 
Cromlech. Stonehenge. Salisbury 
 
Cromlech. Stonehenge. Salisbury, UK. The first buildings of primitive man were connected with religious beliefs. The first constructions of the architecture - megaliths - were roughly treated or not treated with large boulders, arranged in a particular order. Cromlechs - stone slabs, or pillars, forming in terms of one or several concentric circles to 100 m in diameter. In a circle they are covered by a mighty stone blocks, sift-proof to the posts with the help cut the pins and sockets. Today there are no exact information about what were these amazing ancient architectural structures: the temple, the necropolis, the Observatory. 
The UK Economy 
Great Britain is a highly developed industrial country. Over the past 20 years in the British economy were held the following transformations: reduced public sector; reduced tax rates on individuals and entities; held deregulation of the economy (with a simultaneous reduction of public spending). GDP per capita 31800 dollars (2006). In 2006 GDP (PPP) amounted to 1930 billion dollars. The energy reserves, ranks 1st in Europe, as a major producer of oil and gas extraction is conducted on the shelf of the North sea most advanced methods platforms; in the British sector accounts for about 1/3достоверных stocks in Europe) and coal. Oil 124 million tons in 2000 (the main deposits of Brent, Fortis), gas to 89.9 billion m3 (operated 17 fields, the largest Leman-Bank, Brent, Моркэм). British Petroleum and the Anglo-Dutch company Royal Dutch/Shell are among the leaders in its market segment. Historically a very important coal is constantly decreasing. 
In the manufacturing industry in the UK have priority sectors such as transport machinery (12.4% of total industrial production), including the automotive industry (national companies and agencies foreign companies Rover, Ford, Jaguar, Vauxhall, Pegeout-Talbot, Honda, Nissan, Toyota); shipbuilding; aerospace is the third in the world after the USA and France, which manufactures civil and military aircraft (British Aerospace, Harrier, Tornado, Eurofighter), aircraft engines rolls Royce, equipment for Europe's Airbus Industry; food industry (12.5% of total production); General machine building: production of agricultural equipment and machines, including the production of textile machinery (UK - seventh in the world the manufacturer in the world of machine tools); electronics and electrical engineering; computers, processors, and supercomputers (including manufacturers such as IBM and Compaq); software; telecommunications (fiber optics, radar etc); medical equipment; household appliances.  
Chemical industry provides 11% of total production. It: pharmaceuticals (UK - the fourth largest producer of drugs), agricultural chemistry, perfumery; new materials and biotechnology. The development of modern industry in the UK is determined by the level of development of high technologies. The UK has Europe's highest scientific and technical potential. Expenses for scientific-research work makes up over 2% of GDP a year, including more than 35% of all scientific research is financed by the state. Traditionally it was important textile machinery industry (timed to the old textile areas - Lancashire, Yorkshire). The oldest branch of British industry - textile - now lost its former significance (the major areas of production of cotton industry - Lancashire, wool Yorkshire, knitting - East Midlands, linen - Northern Ireland). Large flavorings industry (production of food concentrates, confectionery and tobacco products, beverages (OK. 1/5 of the world's exports of alcoholic beverages, mainly Scotch and English gin).  
Agricultural production highinten site, provides half of the country's needs in food. Agriculture is used (2005) 24,8% of the country (including St. 60% farmland, 35% of cultivated meadows, pastures occupy 45.9%, and under the forest is 10.4%. The main branch of agriculture - animal husbandry. She sustained significant damage in the late 1990s, the epidemic of rabies cows (spongy encephalitis) and foot and mouth disease. About 1/3 of arable land are occupied by cereal crops, mainly wheat and barley. The main agricultural areas are East and South East England. 
25% of GDP creates the financial services sector. It employs 12% of the labour forces of the country, and London is a global financial center, the financial capital of the planet. Among financial services, one should highlight the banking (in addition to British banks in London are presented 50 largest banks in the world), insurance, financial derivatives market (futures, options, global Depository receipts), the market of bonds (Eurobonds), the foreign exchange market (transactions with евровалютами), financial leasing, trust operations with foreign shares, transactions with precious metals. In addition to London's major financial centres are in Manchester, Cardiff, Liverpool, Edinburgh. 
 
Liverpul.Port 
Tourism employs 7% of the working age population and an annual income of over 8 billion dollars. London - the largest tourist center of the world. A significant part of GDP provides education in the world famous schools and universities. Monetary unit - the pound sterling. 
History Of Great Britain 
Traces of settlements of the primitive people found in the British Isles almost everywhere. From pre-Celtic the population of the most known tribe Picts, who lived in Scotland. In the 1st Millennium BC came here Celts. On behalf of one of the tribes of the Britons, the country received the title of Britain. The first of the Romans landed here Julius Caesar, but soon left the island. His  successors established a Roman settlement, but to conquer the entire territory could not and did not try to move North. With the weakening of Rome at the Britons were formed their own Kingdom. In 5-6 centuries in the period of the Great migration of the peoples of England was conquered by the Anglo-Saxons, who formed here a few kingdoms: Мерсия, uesseks, Sussex, Kent, Northumbria. Combined they were king Alfred the Great (end of the 9th century). He was the first code общеанглийских laws. The Anglo-Saxons were faced with the attacks of the Vikings, and, starting from the 9th century, pay them tribute - данегельд. One of the kings of the Vikings, Knud I Mighty, turned on England in their Empire (2nd floor. 11 century), but after his death the Anglo-Saxons regained their independence. Their last king, Harold II, fell in battle with Duke William Norman in 1066. 
Norman conquest brought together the country began the formation of the English nation. In 1212, an uprising barons, supported by all social strata, forced king John Landless sign the Magna Carta. This marked the beginning of the development of the English monarchy as a class, i.e., based on all classes of the country. With the end of the 13th century to the English crown passed Wales. The hundred years war 1337-1453 with France led to the loss of possessions of the English kings on the continent. In Scotland as an independent Kingdom emerged about the 9th century and often came into confrontation with England. Conquest of Ireland English began in the 12th century  
During the war of the roses (1455-1485) in England was largely destroyed the old tribal aristocracy. The new nobility (gentry) increased its ownership by огораживаний (eviction of peasants from the land), willingly participated in various trade and industrial enterprises. In the reign of Elizabeth I (1558-1603), England defeated the Spanish fleet, has achieved domination of the sea. Elizabeth changed the kings of the Scottish dynasty Stewart, Scotland has teamed up with Britain personal Union (since 1707, the combined officially deprived of independence).  
The English revolution of the 17th century ended the monarchy to a parliamentary monarchy. The long struggle with France for trade and colonial hegemony ended in the 18th century victory UK; were captured vast possessions in India and North America, began the colonization of Australia, New Zealand. In the 1760s in England started the industrial revolution. By the mid-19th century accounted for half of global output. Scotland and Ireland (Union of 1801 eliminated the remains of autonomy) developed significantly slower. During the 19th century Britain has expanded their Empire, though deprived the United States of America. Were captured vast areas in Burma and South Africa, ended with the capture of India, Cyprus, Egypt, wars were fought against China. In 1867 colony in Canada converted in the 1st dominion, then dominion was Australia and some other colony. During the 19th century was finally issued system «king reigns but does not rule». The struggle for power since the 17th century, there were two parties - the Tories and the Whigs. Since the mid-19th century, the Tories were transformed into the conservative party, and the Whigs - liberals. 
After the First world war (the First World War) UK achieved a significant part of the former German possession in Africa and b. 'clock territories, taken from Turkey. A great influence on the internal policy of the acquired lab our (working) the party. After the Second world war, the destroyed by bombing Britain on the international arena backseat compared with the United States. In 1940-1970-years gained independence almost all British colonies. The lab our party moved liberal and after the Second world war, the government alternately formed lab our and the conservatives. Under the conservative government of the "iron lady" Margaret Thatcher majority in the state sector was privatized, the company embarked on a reorientation of the traditional coal-mining regions.  
As one of the leading members of the European Union since its inception, the UK is conducting an independent policy in relation to other European countries, largely focusing on the USA. Traditional English conservatism is not allowed лейбористскому government of Tony Blair to go to the European currency, although this is the goal of business circles of the country. In 2007, Blair stepped down as Prime Minister, giving his colleague party to Gordon brown.  
National holiday UK - birthday of the Queen (celebrated not in the true birthday of Her Majesty, and by decision of the government, usually on Saturday of the first half of June). 
The Flag Of Great Britain

The British flag was adopted on 1 January 1801. It is a cloth of blue, with two diagonal lines of red color with a white outline and located on top of their broader red cross with a white outline. The flag is often called the Union Jack (Union Jack). 
British flag symbolizes the unity of different regions of Britain. Direct a wide red cross (the cross of St. George) is the symbol of England. The white diagonal cross (the cross of St. Andrew) - a symbol of Scotland. On the Scottish flag, he is depicted with blue background, which shifted the flag of great Britain. On top of the white diagonal cross is a symbol of the Irish red diagonal cross (the cross of St. Patrick). The English and Scottish flags appeared in the 13th and 14th centuries. After the unification of England and Scotland appeared Union flag on which were depicted by the red cross of St. George and Andrew white cross on a blue field.

Аttractions in Britain

Westminster Abbey

 Until 1365 the British crown jewels, crown jewels and state coffers were kept in Westminster Abbey. The Treasury was in the dungeon under the dormitory - a huge room with wooden vaulted ceiling, which was once a bedroom monks, and which now available library. 
 
Transitions and chapel, located under the dormitory - the oldest part of the Abbey, preserved since the XI century. This is the last thing that survived of the great stone Church, built Anglo-Saxon king Edward the Confessor (1042-1066). His niece, Princess Gita became the wife of Vladimir Monomakh, the mother of the founder of Moscow, Yuri Dolgoruky. In the XIII century the temple was rebuilt, and the image of its original form is preserved only in the XI century embroidery - «the carpet of Bayeux. Preserved building of ancient treasure - heavy vaults on thick columns, chests, which kept the jewelry, high vaulted entrance to the massive double doors locked at seven locks a bunch of huge keys. To get to the treasure can only be from the Eastern gallery of the monastery courtyard, built in 1345 on the site of an old monastery cemetery.  
It was long believed: in this most inaccessible of the Abbey caves where never gets sunlight, can be reached only through a single, carefully guarding the entrance. But at the end of the XIX century in the course of restoration works in Westminster Abbey in the wall of the Royal treasures discovered another secret door. In some places it could be seen the surviving pieces of white skin, which it was once lined with. To the dismay of investigators, the skin was human! And managed to establish to whom it belonged... 
In the summer of 1303, when the English king Edward I of England (1272-1307) suppressed in Scotland next mutiny, the Abbot of Westminster Westminster uenloh and 48 of its monks have entered into a criminal conspiracy. The temptation was too great - in Treasury at that time was money and jewelry at an amount equal to two annual budgets of the country. A few months robbers carried Royal treasures on a secret move. London merchant, wool merchant Richard Поуделикот helped hide and sell stolen goods.  
At the monastery cemetery in front of the entrance to the Treasury by order Уэнлоха sowed hemp: its high thickets had to hide from prying eyes travel dashing brethren in the dungeon and back with precious cargo.  
One evening the priest, father Benedict, passing by, he caught the robbers in the crime and tried to expostulate them. He was killed as a dangerous witness.  
On assurances of the modern Museum of Westminster Abbey, the Ghost of the murdered and still wanders through the galleries of the monastery courtyard between five and six o'clock in the evening. Claim that he is tall, thin, and the priestly vestments on it as the moment of death. Under the low надвинутым monastic hood can be discerned vaguely сереющее in the twilight pale face, hooked senile nose and deep set eyes. Sometimes as he quietly as if talking about something to himself. But to understand what he says is not possible.  
By the fall of 1303 until the king had heard rumors about the outrages that regularly occur in the Abbey. He sent in Westminster Commission to investigate the circumstances of the case, which revealed the unprecedented scale of the looting of the Treasury. Part of the stolen was found. Where it is not found! And in the North - in Northampton, and in the East - in Colchester, and on the South-East - in the cities of Kent, and in the homes of wealthy London merchants, and here, in Westminster, near the walls of the Cathedral, the burial crypts, where robbers staged a warehouse of stolen goods. 
But something did not manage to find it. Perhaps some of the stolen treasures still lie unfound caches in the cemetery of St. Margaret and the walls of the Abbey. 
Criminals waiting for severe punishment - Edward I did not know the mercy of thieves. The verdict of the Royal court with Richard Поуделикота was skinned alive and nailed to a secret door treasures in острастку anyone who decided to follow his footsteps. Skin flap was unhappy and now one can see they are particularly well preserved under the iron bolts secret door. Only the spiritual title saved his accomplices Westminster monks and their Abbot from a similar fate. The death penalty was replaced by his imprisonment in the tower of London. Buckingham Palace 
 
Buckingham palace

:Buckingham Palace is located across the street from PEL Mall and white marble with gilt monument to Queen Victoria. When the Queen is in the Palace, on the roof develops Royal flag. Its ancestor, King George IV, insisted that the Palace was built by the architect John Nash. The cost of construction has reached of 700,000 pounds due to the use of such excesses as 500 blocks of marble with streaks of Carrere. 3 years later, in 1837., when Queen Victoria came to the throne, the Palace was almost impossible to live. Most of 1000 Windows didn't open. To 1853 was built ballroom. King Edward VII was born in the Palace in 1841. and here he died in 1910. Despite the luxurious apartments of the Palace, which is where a lot of family jewels, not all lived in him to be happy. In his memoirs of the Duke of Windsor wrote that a huge Palace with its large meeting rooms and endless corridors seemed filled with the smells of mildew, which I still feel whenever I enter into him." Private apartments of the Queen smells of mildew, which I still feel whenever I enter into him." Private apartments of the Queen and the Duke of Edinburgh are now in the Northern wing of the hotel and overlook the green Park (Green Park). Summer Palace is visited by about 30 000 people who participate in the receptions in the Royal garden, where there is a lake and waterfalls. Picture of natural complement bird Flamingo, the rest of which is not violate even the Royal helicopters, flying over the garden. Buckingham Palace - a study of the monarchy. Tasks of the service personnel are diverse: from the contents of the Palace's Banquet for heads of other States ambassadors and awards ceremony. From here starts many Royal ceremonies, for example. State opening of sessions of the Parliament in the autumn or ceremony "Тruping-de-color" in honor of the Queen's birthday in June. In the Royal gallery, built on the site of a chapel destroyed during the war, exhibitions of the Royal collections. Royal stables with horses, horse-cloth, with magnificent state coach, painted by the Italian artist Cyprian, and more modern cars and trucks are also open to the public.

Thames

The Thames river, which was called "water history," and "the most majestic river in Europe", decorated with a lot of bridges and tunnels, but before the opening of Westminster bridge in 1750г. London bridge was the only one across the Thames. The first bridge was made of stone, and it is built with 1176 on 1209г.г. Despite its grim appearance he is known throughout Europe for its houses and a chapel in honor of St. Thomas Кантерберийского. Severed heads traitors hung on the spears of the fortified gate. While the old destroyed the bridge was built by Sir John Rennie from 1823 to 1831г.г., rebuilt in lake Havasu city in Arizona, was built on its place a new, made of special concrete. Some bridges London particularly interesting: hammer-смитский the bridge is decorated with metal patterns, and on the bridge Vauxhall are huge bronze figures depicting pottery, machinery, architecture, agriculture, science, fine arts, local authorities and education. Some of the boats on the river attract more attention than the boat competition in Oxford and Cambridge. Of the recently appeared on the embankment of the monuments is particularly famous for the monument "peace Pagoda was built by Buddhist monks on the opposite Bank of Chelsea, in the Park Bettersi Next to the pagoda, which has a height of 100 feet, is the Japanese garden is part of the international relay race in the world.

Sigmund Freud Museum

This family home of Sigmund Freud, the founder of psychoanalysis, lived since 1938, when they escaped from the Nazi regime in Austria. Until 1982 it was the youngest daughter of Freud, Anna (also psychoanalyst). Now a Museum and research center at the same time. 
The exposition of the Museum is very rich. Family Freud lucky - they managed to take almost the entire atmosphere of his house of Austria. So now the visitors have the opportunity to admire the samples Austrian wooden furniture of the XVIII and XIX centuries, chairs and tables in the style of "bedmeer". But, of course, "hit of the season" - the famous psychoanalyst's couch, on which during the sessions lay his patients. 
In addition, Dr. whole life collected objects of ancient art - samples of ancient Greek, Egyptian, Roman art filled with all horizontal surfaces in his office. Including writing Desk, where Freud had the habit of writing in the morning.

Big Ben 
These clock on the tower of the Parliament of the United Kingdom hear all over the world. Microphones radio services, the air force transmit their fight every hour. It is with the first stroke of big Ben on the night of 31 1 planet officially on international interim standard is expected to enter into the new Millennium. 
The big Ben tourists are not allowed to get on top of the 96-meter tower is possible only in a narrow spiral staircase. 334 steps lead to a small open area in the center of which is the legendary bell. Big Ben is the only one bell. Its height is whiter than 2 meters and a diameter equal to almost 3 meters. 
The name big Ben surround interesting history. The official version was the bell is named in honor of the head of the construction works sulphur Benjamin Hall. For its impressive size of прорабу was given the nickname Big Ben. Another version of bell got its name from the athlete and a boxer in the reign of Queen Victoria. 
Big Ben and the surrounding other small bells knock chime of the following words: "Through this hour of the Lord protects me and his power will not allow anyone to stumble' After midnight the first blow of the hammer on big Ben exactly coincides with the first second of the hour. Every 2 days mechanism is thoroughly tested and grease, is taken into account daily temperature and pressure. But as any clockwork, the clock on the tower of the English Parliament sometimes time loss or gain. I must say that the error is not large, only 1.5 - 2 seconds. To correct the situation you only need a coin, the old English penny. No one knows exactly who first came up with the idea to use coins, but the idea worked. Old English penny put on a pendulum length of 4 meters accelerates the movement to 2.5 seconds per day. Adding or removing a penny, the inspector therefore strives for accuracy. Mechanism, despite its almost 1,5 centuries-old history and weight 5 tons, works perfectly well. 
The dials big Ben look on all 4 sides of the world. They are made of Birmingham opal hour hands are cast from pig-iron and minute are made of copper sheet. It is estimated that the minute hands are for the year total distance of 190 km 
Big Ben is a symbol of the time. The period of greatest dawn of the country. And the inscription in Latin: "God save the Queen Викторию1' - a tribute to personal respect to the monarch, which had such a notion as the British Empire. 
Everybody knows what the big Ben. It is a giant clock installed on the tower of St. Stephen the Palace of Westminster, sit by both houses of the British Parliament. The chimes of the big Ben our listeners hear almost every hour. Charles Berry, the architect who built the Palace of Westminster, in 1844, requested the Parliament of subsidies for the construction of hours on the tower of St. Stephan. Construct watch took mechanic Benjamin Вальями. It was decided that a new watch will be the biggest and accurate in the world and their bell - the most difficult to ringing it was heard if not in the entire Empire, then at least throughout the capital.  
When the project hours was made between the author and the authorities began arguing about the required accuracy hours. The astronomer Royal, Professor George airy insisted that the first ring of the bell every hour done with a precision of one second. Accuracy was checked hourly Telegraph, связывавшему big Ben with the Royal Greenwich Observatory. Вальями said that for hours, open to the winds and thunderstorms, this precision is not under force, and that in General it's not necessary. Five years lasted this argument and airy won. Project Вальями was rejected. Watch with required accuracy were designed a kind of dent. They weigh five tons. 
Then we started to considerable problems for casting bells and debate in Parliament about this. It was at this time include the version of the origin of the name big Ben. Versions are: it is either the name of the Chairman of the parliamentary Commission Benjamin Hall, or the name of a famous boxer Benjamin count. When the clock and the bell has been raised and mounted, it became clear that the cast iron arrows are too heavy, and they poured from more light alloy. Open hours were 31 may 1859. Until 1912 watch lit with gas-jets, which were later replaced with electric lamps. And on the radio for the first time the chimes sounded 31 December 1923. 
 
After the tower of St. Stephen during the second world war was hit by a bomb, the clock did not go so well. 
 
Watch these were incredible popularity both in England and abroad. In London there were lots of "Little Бенов", reduced copies of the towers of St. Stephen with a clock at the top. Such towers - something average between architectural structures and floor clocks venues were constructed almost all intersections. 
 
The most famous "Little Ben" is at Victoria train station, but in fact, in almost every area of London, you can find little Ben.