Теоретическая грамматика

Adverbs are words like slowly, yesterday, now, soon and suddenly. An adverb usually modifies a verb or a verb phrase. It provides information about the manner, place, time, frequency, certainty or other circumstances of the activity denoted by the verb or verb phrase.

The adverb is a notional part of speech denoting, like the adjective, property; the adjective, as has been outlined in the previous unit, denotes properties of a substance, and the adverb denotes non-substantive properties: in most cases the properties of actions (to walk quickly), or the properties of other properties (very quick), or the properties of the situations in which the processes occur (to walk again). In other words, the adverb can be defined as a qualifying word of the secondary qualifying order, while the adjective is a primary qualifying word.

The adverb is the least numerous and the least independent of all the notional parts of speech; it has a great number of semantically weakened words intermediary between notional and functional words; this is why its notional part of speech status was doubted for a long time: the first grammarians listed adverbs among the particles.

(15) Syntax of the phrase

The phrase as a polynominatlve lingual unit. The correlation of the phrase and the word, of the phrase and the sentence.

The main object of study in syntax is the communicative unit of the language, the sentence. The phrase is the syntactic unit used as a notional part of a sentence. As a level-forming unit (see Unit 1), it is characterized by some common and some differential features with the unit of the lower level, the word, and the unit of the upper level, the sentence. Like the word, the phrase is a nominative unit, but it provides a complex nomination of the referent, a polynomination consisting of several (at least two) nominative components, presenting the referent as a complicated phenomenon, cf.: a girl – a beautiful girl; a decision – his unexpected decision; etc. Moreover, the regular free phrase does not enter speech as a ready-made unit like the word; it is freely formed in speech, like the sentence according to a certain grammatical pattern. As for the fixed word-combinations, idioms, they are closer to the word in the type of nomination: they are ready-made units fixed in dictionaries and studied mainly by lexicology.

(17) Sentence. The actual division of the sentence.

The notion of actual division of the sentence (informative perspective of the sentence). The components of actual division: the theme, the rheme, the transition. The connection of the actual division of the sentence with the logical analysis of the proposition (logical subject and logical predicate); their correlation with the subject and the predicate in the syntactic structure of a  sentence. Direct (unspeclalized, unmarked) and inverted (reverse, specialized, marked) actual division. Actual division of the sentence and context. Lingual means of expressing actual division of the sentence: word order patterns, constructions with introducers, syntactic patterns of contrastive complexes, constructions with articles and other determiners, constructions with intensifying particles, intonation contours.

(18) Communicative types of sentences.

The notion of the communicative type of the sentence. The basic communicative types of sentences: declarative, interrogative, and imperative. Response as the indicator of the communicative purpose of the sentence; the classification of utterance types by Ch. Fries. Actual division of sentences of different communicative types. The problem of the exclamatory sentence type: exclamation as the accompanying communicative feature of the sentence. The status of “purely exclamatory sentences”. Intermediary (mixed) communicative types of sentences: interrogative-declarative, imperative-declarative, declarative-interrogative, imperative-interrogative, declarative-imperative, and interrogative-imperative. Intermediary communicative types of sentences as the means of expressing various stylistic connotations. The pragmatic aspect of the communicative types of the sentence; classification of speech acts by J. Austin and J. R. Searle.

(20) Composite sentence. Complex sentence.

Composite sentences as polypredicative constructions. A clause in a composite sentence; its correlation with a separate sentence. Subordinative polypredication (hypotaxis) and coordinative polypredication (parataxis); complex and compound sentences as the two basic types of composite sentences. Syndeton and asyndeton vs. coordination and subordination. Cumulative polypredication; cumulative sentences as intermediary constructions between composite sentences and sequences of separate sentences. Polypredication of fused type; semi-composite sentences as intermediary constructions between simple and composite sentences.

The 2 main types of connection of clauses in a composite sentence are subordination and coordination. By coordination clauses are arranged as units of syntactically equal rank, i.e. equipotently. The leading clause and a sequential clause (He came and we had coffee. We had coffee and he came).By subordination they are arranged as units of unequal rank, one being categorically dominated by the other. Besides the classical types of coordination and subordination of clauses, we find another case of construction of a composite sentence. When the connection between the clauses combined in a polypredicative unit is extremely loose, placing the sequential clause in a syntactically detached position. In this loosely connected composite sentence the information expressed by the sequential clause is presented as an afterthought, an idea that comes to the speaker’s mind after the completion of the foregoing utterance. This kind of connection is called cumulation. Its formal sign is the tone of completion. In writing it is a semifinal mark, such as a semicolon, a dash, sometimes a series of periods. Continuative cumulation: He did his job in the office without any fuss; he answered questions in the House: he made a couple of speeches. Parenthetical cumulation: Your story, you know, showed such breadth and depth of thought.

The complex sentence is a polypredicative construction built on the principle of subordination (hypotaxis). In paradigmatic presentation, the derivational history of the complex sentence is as follows: two or more base sentences are clausalized and joined into one construction; one of them performs the role of a matrix in relation to the others, the insert sentences. The matrix base sentence becomes the principal clause of the complex sentence and the insert sentences become its subordinate clauses, e.g.: The team arrived. + It caused a sensation. à When the team arrived, it caused a sensation.

(21) Compound sentence. Semi-composite sentence.

Compound sentence. 
 Compound sentences are structures of co-ordination with two or more immediate constituents which are syntactically equivalent. process of coordination involves linking of structures of equal grammatical rank . coordinative conjunctions and correlatives serve to produce coordination by joining grammatically equivalent elements. formative words linking parts of compound sentence : 1) coordinative conjunctions, 2) conjunctive adverbs, 3) fixed prepositional phrases. Coordinate connectors can established different semantic relations between clauses. Coordinate sentence linkers can be grouped in following way: 1Copulative, connecting two members and their meanings, 2. Disjunctive, connecting two members but disconnecting their meaning, meaning in second member excluding that in first3. Adversative, connecting two members, but contrasting their meaning 4. Causal, adding an independent proposition explaining preceding statement, represented only by single conjunction for. 5. Illative, introducing an inference, conclusion, consequence, result: namely, therefore, on that account, consequently, accordingly, for that reason, so, then, hence, etc. 6. Explanatory, connecting words, phrases or sentences and introducing an explanation or particularization

The semi-composite sentence as a polypredicative construction of fused (blended) composition. Paradigmatic presentation of the semi-composite sentence. The semi-composite sentence as an intermediary phenomenon between the simple sentence and the composite sentence. The leading (fully predicative) semi-clause and the semi-predicative expansion (the complicator). The two types of semi-composite sentences: semi-complex and semi-compound sentences. The types of semi-complex sentences effected by position-sharing or by direct linear expansion; semi-complex sentences of subject-sharing and of object-sharing; semi-complex sentences of attributive complication, of adverbial complication (conjoint and absolute) and of nominal complication. The types of semi-compound sentences: semi-compound sentences of a poly-predicate subject-sharing type and semi-compound sentences of a poly-subject predicate-sharing type. Semi-composite sentences and related pleni-composite sentences. Sentences of primitivized

(22). Syntax of the text.

Text as an object of research. The problem of text in the hierarchy of language levels. Topical (semantic) unity and semantico-syntactic cohesion as basic differential features (categories) of the text. Monologue and dialogue sequences of sentences. The problem of textual units: a supra-phrasal unity (a complex syntactic unity), a dialogue unity; a cumuleme and an occurseme. Prospective (cataphoric) and retrospective (anaphoric) cumulation of sentences in the text. Conjunctive cumulation: pure conjunctions, conjunction-like adverbial and parenthetical connectors. Correlative cumulation: substitution and representation. Cumulation of mixed type. Communicative unity of sentences in textual sequences: linear and parallel connections of sentences. The dicteme as an elementary textual unit. Functions of the dicteme: the topical function, the functions of nomination, of predication and of stylization. Intonational delimitation of a dicteme in the text. The correlation of a dicteme and a paragraph. Intermediary phenomena between the sentence and the supra-sentential construction; parcellation and its stylistic load. Text as the sphere of functional manifestation of the sentence.