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At the end of a declarative sentence — one-member or two-member — a full-stop (a period or a dot) is placed to denote fall of tone, completeness of the thought, and a pause.
The voice dropped to a whisper. [G.] He swung round and walked down the road. [Cr. ]
Three hundred pounds.[Sn.]
The same in Russian.
Lecture №1
The Theme: The Sentence
Plan:
1. A declarative sentence.
2. An interrogative sentence.
3. An exclamatory sentence an exclamation.
Punctuation Marks at the End of a Sentence
At the end of a declarative sentence — one-member or two-member — a full-stop (a period or a dot) is placed to denote fall of tone, completeness of the thought, and a pause.
The voice dropped to a whisper. [G.] He swung round and walked down the road. [Cr. ]
Three hundred pounds.[Sn.]
The same in Russian.
Посклонувнизспускалсябольшойса
At the end of an interrogative sentence, one-member or two-member — a question mark (алinterrogation mark) is put to denote interrogation, request, surprise, rise or fall of tone, and a pause.
“What are you talking about?” [Gr.]“A mutual affection?” [G.] “Will you kindly see that Mrs. Heron has this note?” [G.]
The same in Russian.
At the end of an exclamatory sentence an exclamation jnark is put to denote strong emotion (pain, surprise, delight; strict order), falling tone, completeness of the thought, and a pause.
It’s no good! [Lar.] “Silence in the court!” [Gor.]“My dear Adrian! Good of you.” [G.]
ThesameinRussian'.
Хороши вишни в начале цветения! [Пер.] — Подождите! — крикнула мама. [Ф. ]
At the end of an imperative sentence a full-stop is used to denote completeness of the thought, falling tone, and a pause, the mood of the verb expressing inducement, request, order.
“Go ahead.” [G.] “Look.” [Sn.] “Sit up,” he commanded, “and hold your hands.” [Man.]
The same in Russian.
- Heзажигайтесвет, — сказалаона. [К.П. ] — Не торопись, не торопись. Дайсрок. [Б.П. ] — Беристул. [Ф. ]
At the end of an incomplete sentence a dash is placed (sometimes two or three) to denote hesitation, faltering speech, incompleteness of the thought, and rising tone.
“My brother is a soldier — ” [G. ] “No fool like an — ” IG.] “I am afraid — ” she paused. [Gr.]
Periods are used in Russian for these purposes.
Ясамглубоконесчастливи ... и... [Ч. ] Не спит, удвоила вниманье. Недвижновтемнотуглядит... [П.]
At the end of a complete sentence — one-member or two-member — dots are often used to denote implication. The dots are placed before a full-stop or any other punctuation mark(PM).
Poor father: Not so big after all — and with no one to look after him ... . And every day he had to work and was so tired to be a Mr. Macdonald ... . [Man.] “Phuong told me.” “How could she ...?” [Gr.]
In Russian the dots are used instead of a full-stop or a comma. Two dots are added to a question mark or an exclamatory mark.
Убаюканный сладкими надеждами, он час спустя-крепко спал... [Ч. ] Беда не приходит одна... [М.-С. ] Она смеялась чему-то, толкуя отрывисто про куклу. —Видите?.. Кукла... Мнми... Видите. [Т.] У меня отец-старик, мать!.. [Т.]
Lecture №2
Тheme:
Plan:
1. The subject.
2. The predicate.
The Simple Sentence The Principal Parts The Subject and the Predicate
There is no PM between the subject and the predicate, as they are closely connected, and demand no pause.
Neither is there any PM between the subject and a compound or double predicate.
Note. When the predicative is expressed by an infinitive phrase, a comma sometimes precedes it to denote a pause and emphasis.
A complex subject, like a simple one, is usually not set off by any PM.
A complex subject may have a detached character,*so a comma is placed before it to denote falling tone and a pause.
“It’s made quite a difference, your being here
In an incomplete sentence, when the predicate or the link-verb is omitted, a comma is placed after the subject to denote implication, rising tone, and a pause.
In Russian there is a dash after the subject.
If the predicate contains two or more modal or auxiliary verbs, or several predicative’s, a comma (or commas) divides them.
The subject is often separated from the predicate by introductory words, detached parts of the sentence, detached or appended clauses, or by a participial construction, so these words, clauses, and constructions are enclosed in commas (brackets or dashes) to denote their parenthetical character and lowered tone.
Grammatically, detached isolation may be expressed by a change of the usual word order, by special stress, lowered tone. Graphically, detached parts of a sentence are marked off by a comma or double commas.-Not only the secondary parts of a sentence, but also the principal parts may have a detached character. Detached attributes and adverbial modifiers of manner often come in pairs. Subordinate clauses may also be detached. See examples on the detached parts after each part of the sentence in this book; also on detached subordinate clauses.
A detached part of a sentence (обособленныйчленпредложения) may be classified as having an additional, independent, introductory character, tending to isolation in the sentence, and loose connection.In contracted sentences* with two subjects to one predicate there is no PM between the subjects, if they are connected by a conjunction; there is a comma, if the subject is repeated for emphasis (without a conjunction).
A contracted sentence containing three or more subjects has usually a conjunction before the last one. Commas are placed between the subjects. If a longer pause is necessary, or if commas come in between to mark off other parts of the sentence, there is a semicolon. Before the conjunction and before the predicate commas are put as well.
When the subjects in a contracted sentence are introduced in pairs, these pairs are set off from each other by double commas.
Sometimes the second subject of a contracted sentence has a detached, explanatory character, so it is set off by a comma or double commas,inspite of the conjunction ‘and’.
In contracted sentences with two or more predicates to one subject there is usually no PM between the predicates if they are connected by the conjunctions ‘and’, ‘or’, ‘either... or’, ‘as well as’, ‘neither ... nor’. If they are joined by the conjunctions ‘but’, ‘nor’, there is a comma between the predicates.
When a contracted sentence has no conjunction, a comma is placed between the predicates to denote a short pause and enumeration of connected actions. The same in case of a repeated predicate (or a part of the predicate) used for emphasis.
The last predicate is, in most cases, preceded by a conjunction, before which a comma may be put or omitted.
In case of a longer pause and weaker connection, there is a semicolon between the predicates of long contracted sentences. Also, when there is already a comma in the sentence.
Lecture №3
Theme:
Plan:
3. The adverbial modifier
The Object
An object, being closely connected with the predicate of the sentence (or with some verbal), is not set off by any PM.
In case of enumeration, the objects are separated from each other by commas. The same in case of a repeated object used for emphasis. When objects are introduced in pairs, joined by the conjunction ‘and’, each pair is set off by a comma or double commas.
A detached object (mostly prepositional) is set off by a comma (or double commas, if placed in the middle of the sentence) to denote a pause.
A complex object is not set off by any PM.
The Attribute
An attribute is usually closely connected with the noun, or pronoun, it modifies (both in postposition and preposition), so there is no PM between them.
Homogeneous* attributes, including the last one, are divided by commas.The same in case of repetition for emphasis.
N on-homogeneous* attributes are not separated by any PM.
An attributive group of words (or sentence) preceding the modifying noun is hyphenated.
An attribute expressed by a participial phrase is usually not set off from the noun it modifies by any PM.
Detached attributes mostly follow the words they modify, and are set off by a comma or double commas. Such attributes often go in pairs joined by the conjunction ‘and’.
Note. Detached attributes preceding the nouns they modify may have a causal meaning, and are set off by commas as well. They may be adjectives, participles, and participial phrases.
A detached attributive participial phrase following the noun it modifies is set off by a comma or double commas.
A complex attribute is not separated from the noun it modifies by any PM.
An attached (close or undetached) apposition, being closely connected with the noun it modifies, and preceding it, is not separated by any PM from the noun.
A detached (or loose) apposition, following the noun it modifies, is set off by a comma or double commas(sometimes by a dash).
Out of this crowd two jolly girls, Margery and Minnie, soon attached .
The Adverbial Modifier
An adverbial modifier of time, duration, or frequency placed at the beginning, at the end, or in the middle of a sentence, is normally not separated by any PM from the principal parts, being closely connected with the verbitmodifies.An appositional adverbial modifier of time, having an explanatory or specifying (уточняющее) meaning, is set off by a comma (or double commas).
A detached adverbial modifier of time usually comesin the middle (or at the end) of a sentence, and splits it,so it is set off by double commas (or a comma) to denote a pause and isolation.
An adverbial modifier of time, expressed by a participial phrase, having a detached character, is set off bya comma (or double commas), whatever place it may occupy in the sentence.
A complex adverbial modifier of time, which is expressed by a Nominative Absolute (Participle) Construction, is always set off by a comma or double commas.
An adverbial modifier of place or direction, whatever place it may occupy in the sentence, is usually not separated from the principal parts by any PM, being closely connected with them.
An adverbial modifier of place may have a detached character, so a comma or double commas are used to set it off from the rest of the sentence, to denote rising toneand a pause.
An oppositional adverbial modifier of place, having an explanatory or specifying meaning, is divided by double commas from the rest of the sentence. An adverbial modifier of manner is usually closely linked to the verb or the verbal it modifies, so it is used without any PM in the sentence.Note. When an adverbial modifier of manner, expressed by a gerundial phrase, opens a sentence, it is marked off by a comma.In case of repetition, or in case of several adverbial modifiers of manner, there are commas between them (in spite of a conjunction).
A detached adverbial modifier of manner is set off by a comma or double commas to denote isolation, lowered tone, and a pause. Detached adverbial modifiers of manner often come in pairs joined by the conjunction ‘and’, so these pairs are enclosed in double commas.
A detached adverbial modifier of manner is often expressed by a participial phrase, which is always set off by a comma or double commas.An adverbial modifier of purpose, which is expressed by an infinitive, or introduced by the phrase-preposition ‘in order’ with an infinitive, is not separated from the other parts of the sentence by any PM. An adverbial modifier of purpose introduced by the conjunction ‘so as’ with an infinitive is separated from the predicate by a comma to denote a pause.An adverbial modifier of purpose preceding the principal parts of the sentence is usually set off by a comma, especially when it is lengthy.
A detached adverbial modifier of purpose is set off by a comma (or double commas).A complex adverbial modifier of purpose is not separated from the predicate by any PM.An adverbial modifier of result (or consequence) is never set off from the predicate by any PM, being closely connected with it.A complex adverbial modifier of result is not set off from the predicate by any PM. An adverbial modifier of cause (or reason) expressed by a prepositional phrase is usually introduced without any PM, being closely connected with the predicate. The prepositions are: ‘with’, ‘for’, ‘through’, ‘because of’.Adverbial modifiers of cause introduced by the prepositions ‘because of’, ‘for’, ‘what with’, ‘what between’ may have a detached character. Several adverbial modifiers of cause are separated by commas, and set off by a comma from the principal parts of the sentence. An adverbial modifier of cause expressed by a participial phrase has a detached character, and is set off by a comma or double commas.
A complex adverbial modifier of cause is set off by a comma or double commas, when expressed by a Nominative Absolute Participle Construction; when expressed by a gerundial (or halfgerundial) complex, it is usually notset off by any PM. An adverbial modifier of condition in post-position introduced by the prepositional group ‘but for’ or ‘in case of’ is, as a rule, not separated by any PM from the other parts of the sentence, being connected with them, and needing no pause. An adverbial modifier of condition placed at the head of the sentence is usually An adverbial modifier of condition may have a detached character, so it is set off by a comma to denote falling tone and a pause. A lot of adverbial modifiers of comparison have become set expressions, and are not set off by any PM from the verbs or adjectives they are compared with. These modifiers are mostly introduced by the conjunction ‘as’. An adverbial modifier of comparison following an adjective (or adverb) in the comparative degree is not separated from it by any PM. This modifier is introduced by the conjunction ‘than’.An adverbial modifier of comparison following an adjective (or an adverb) in the positive degree, and introduced by the connective groups ‘as ... as’, ‘not so ... as’, is not set off by any PM. An adverbial modifier of comparison has often a detached character, so it is set off by a comma or double commas to denote a pause. This modifier is introduced by the conjunctions ‘as if’, ‘as though’ and the preposition ‘like’.An adverbial modifier of attending circumstances is normally set off by a comma or double commas, as it has a detached, independent character. It is usually expressed by a Nominative Absolute (Participle) Construction, or by the Absolute Construction introduced by the preposition ‘with’. It is a complex adverbial modifier.An adverbial modifier of degree is so closely connected with the adjective, adverb, or verb it modifies that it is never separated from it by any PM.
Adverbial modifiers of concession introduced by the prepositions ‘notwithstanding’, ‘despite’ and the prepositional group ‘in spite of’ are set off by a comma from the principal parts of the sentence.Adverbial modifiers of exclusion (or substitution) introduced by the prepositions ‘except’, ‘save’, ‘but’, ‘instead of’, are not set off by any PM, if they are closely connected with the words they restrict or specify. When an adverbial modifier of exclusion has a detached character, it is set off by a comma, or enclosed indouble commas.
Lecture №4
Theme:
Plan:
1.The interjection.
2. Direct address.
3. Parenthesis.
4. Words of affirmation and negation.
Independent Elements
- The Interjection
An interjection is usually followed by an exclamation mark to denote great emotion: pain, anger, astonishment, acute distress, joy or delight; or several of these feelings combined.In case of several interjections, there is usually an exclamation mark after each. There may be a dash between twointerjections.
In case of an exclamatory sentence, there is usually a comma after the interjection, and an exclamation mark (or a dash) at the end of the sentence.
If поgreat emotionis expressed, nor exclamation, but such feelings as pity, sorrow, annoyance, wish, pleasure, surprise, approval or disapproval (with ‘yes’ or ‘no’), a comma is put after the interjection.
Note. An interjection may consist of a group of words, so there is an exclamation mark at the end of the group.
- Direct addressis divided by a comma or double commas from the sentence to denote its independent character and a pause. Often some other PM comes after the direct address: an exclamation mark, a question mark, a dash, or a colon, in exclamatory or interrogative sentences, before introductory words, enumeration or explanation.
- Parenthesis
Introductory words are mainly set off by a comma or double commas from the rest of the sentence to denote their syntactical independence, their detached character, lowered tone, and a pause.
Introductory words are: —
Modal words: actually, apparently, certainly, evidently, indeed, likely, maybe, naturally, perhaps, please, possibly, probably, really, truly.
Adverbs having a modal or connective meaning: accordingly, besides, consequently, finally, firstly, fortunately (unfortunately), hence, however, happily (unhappily), luckily (unluckily), moreover, nevertheless, otherwise, rather, secondly, still, therefore, undoubtedly.
In Russian a comma or double commas are always used to mark off introductory words.Introductory modal words are often attached to modal verbs (usually with a suppositional meaning): ‘could possibly’, ‘may perhaps’, ‘must certainly’, ‘should probably’, ‘might as well’, etc., these groups expressing double modality, that is, a greater degree of uncertainty, doubt, probability, near certainty, etc. In such cases the modalwords are never set off by any PM, being part of a compound modal predicate.
He could possibly manage, before the surgery, these two calls. [Cr.]
In Russian suppositional modal meanings are mostly expressed by modal words. But when these words come alongside with modal verbs, they are set off by a comma or double commas.
Introductory phrases, like modal words, are usually set off by a comma or double commas. In case of an appo- sitive explanatory meaning, and a longer pause, there may be a dash, double dashes, or brackets.
Introductory phrases are: —
prepositional-, after all, as a matter of fact, at least, by the by, by the way, for example, in any case, in fact, in general, in short, no doubt, of course, on the contrary, on the one hand, on the other hand.
infinitival: so to say, to be frank, to begin with, to be on the safe side, to be sure, to cut a long story short, to say nothing of, to tell the truth.
participial: briefly speaking, frankly speaking, generally speaking, humanly speaking.
In Russian there is a comma or double commas to set off such phrases.
Some of the above-mentioned words and phrases are used as emphatic words and phrases with a convincing meaning. They are stressed in the sentence, pronounced in a high pitch, and are, consequently, not marked off by any PM.
Words of Affirmation and Negation
Words of affirmation: ‘yes’, ‘certainly’, and words of negation: ‘no’, ‘certainly’ are usually separated from the sentence by a comma to denote falling tone and a pause.When ‘yes’, ‘certainly’ or ‘no’ stand alone, or when a longer pause is needed, they are followed by a semicolon or by a full-stop; by an exclamation mark to denote an exclamatory meaning, or by a question mark to denote interrogation.