Introduction into stylistics

Close friendship, unearthly beauty, deep feeling, unbearable pain.

 

SE are usually very original and fresh once which are created for a concrete novel or story.

Sleepless bay неугомонный залив, slavish knees раболепные колени.

 

From structural point of view Galperin speaks of five widely used models.

1. Adj + noun

Mysterious river, pearly beauty, a faint and bitter smile.

 

2. Participle + noun

Sleeping yawning world, a screwed up smile, choked voice

 

3. Noun + noun

Hedgehog Sophia, gipsy white.

Reversed E in a of highlighted phrase. A shadow of a smile, a man of courage.

An E can also be expressed in a form of proper name in a general or possessive case.

Her Giaconda smile, a shadowy little man, with merrily eyes.

 

4. E can also be used in a form or a phrase or even in a sentence which are tightened in one word by means of dashes. Hyphenated or phrase epithets.

Ex: Mildred turned her face again to the worried preoccupied infinitely Hue to-be-looked-after bold-headed Hugh

 

5. Adverb + adj.

Her eyebrows were boldly black. A hellishly dull empty room.

 

E can be classified according to the semantic principle. Firstly E can be based on a metaphor (honeyed tong, starry eyes). An E based on a personification is also a kind of a metaphoric E. (pitiless rain, narrow shouldered house). Secondly there are E based on similies (lamp-like face, pincer-like fingers, bird-like nose). E can also be based on oxymoron (wise foolishness, lost glory). E can also be based on hyperbole (lethal prices, inhuman regular teeth). E which are based on antonomasia (gorgon glance, Napoleonic ambitions).

 

Personification

P is a kind of metaphor. It is a device which endows a thing or a phenomenon with features peculiar to a human being. In Shakespeare’s sonnets we often come across the personification of the word time which is written with capital letter. (Old Time, Bloody tyrant Time etc). The Romanticists used to resort a P rather often. In the 19 cent and modern literature the instances of personification are rare. In case they are used by writers they rather serve to convey a humorous effect. Sometimes P develops into allegory i.e. the realisation of some abstract idea in some poem or story in which characters and actions represent general truth, good or bad quality.

Than Night, like some great loving mother, gently lase her hand on our fevered head, and turns our little tear-stained face up to hers, and smiles, and though she doesn't speak, we know what she would say and lay our hot flashed cheek against her bosom and the pain is gone.

 

Metonymy

M is also based on analogy but in it contrary 2 the simile and metaphor there is an objectively existing relation between the object named and the object implied. Metonymy and metaphor differ also in the way they are deciphered. In the process of disclosing the meaning implied in the metaphor one image excludes the other that is the metaphor lamb in the sent the sky lamp of the night when deciphered means the moon. And though there is a definite interplay we perceive only one object the moon. This is not the case with. M while presenting one object to our mind, doesn't exclude the other. In The N they came in. 2 of them, a man with an a silent dark man: definitely, the mustache and eye have nothing in common.

The mustache and the man himself are both pacified by the mind.

Among them the following are most common.

1. The result may stand for the course

Grey hear is not always respected.

2. The course stands for the result

The author lives by his pen only.

3. The symbol stands for the thin signified.

England sucked the blood of other countries destroyed the brains and heart of Irishmen, Hindus and Egyptian.

4. The characteristic feature stands for its bearer

The force - the police.

5. The instrument stands for the action.

As the sword is the worst argument that can be used so should it be the last.

6. The container stands for the thing contained or contrary.

The kettle boils

7. An abstract nouns stands for a concrete or contrary.

Labour demonstrated in the street.

8. Material stands for the thing

A shower of steel fell on the tranches.

9. The name of the creator stands for its creation

We came into possession on a whole Shakespeare.

The list is no way complete. There are many other types of relations which may serve as a bases for metonymy.

M is used to achieve concreteness and expressiveness of description.

 

Synecdoche

The term denotes the simplest kind of Metonymy using the name of a part to denote the whole or wise versa when an individual stands for whole class or a whole class stands an individual.

Ex: all hands on deck. (the griffon)

 

Antonomasia

A is the use of a proper name for a common one or vice versa. In this case we use:

1. The name of some famous personality for a characteristic feature (he is the napoleon of crime)
2. The name of the place where some even took place for the very event. (Waterloo)
3. Geographical names used to denote thing originated there (china- фарфор; champagne )
4. Names of things after their inventor (sandwich, diesel etc.)

Antonomasia also be metaphoric i.e. based on similarity between 2 things. There are 2 types of such antonomasia when a proper nous is used for a common noun. The proper name expresses the most striking feature of a personage’s character. Thus Attello stands for a jealous person.

Secondly, when any common noun can be used as a proper name. It’s always original and in such cases the person’s name serves his main characteristic.

Ex: Becky Sharp, Lady Shake

Is believed to be much weaker than that contained in a metaphor simile. Nevertheless it is also a powerful means of a poetic expression. Its force lies in the intense contains with which it can pick out one particular aspect of a complex thing or idea making the thing itself easier to comprehend.

 

Hyperbole

H is an expression of an idea in an excitingly exaggerated way. ls gauge. I'd cross the world to find you a pin.

Stylistic H convey either an elevated mood or a satirical attitude.

He heard nothing. He was more remote than the stars.

 

Understatement

U is an expression of an idea in an excessively restrained language.

He knows a thing or two.

 

Litotes

L is a specific form of understatement which consists in the use of a negative for the contrary. The structure of L is usual a negative particle +an antonym with a negative

Connotative effect produced by litotes as well as by understatement are varied. It may be characterskc instance of an author generally restrained tone of writing or a way of rendering settle irony.

4. Oxymoron

O. is a st.d presenting combinations of 2 contrary ideas of the comp-nient reveals some obj-ly existing feature of quality while the other __ serves to convey the speakers subj-ve attitude.

- all the sweetness of the pain

- parting is such a sweet sorrow

The structure of oxymoron is most often an epithet + the word it modifies. There may be also a pattern of an oxymoron as a verb + a noun, governed by the verb. (He had leaved a very long time with death and was a little detached.) With the help of juxtaposition of two contrasted words the speaker emphasizes the complex nature of the thing spoken about. Both elements of the pair bring out some feature or quality of the thing spoken about. In the majority of cases the modifier conveys the authors or the characters attitude towards what is modified.

-His voice, when it came, was politely ironic and unknowingly well bread.

Frequently repeated oxymoron become trite and lexicalized. Some of them are nothing more than intensifiers. (Awfully nice, pretty bad, frightfully happy etc).

 

Periphrases

P is a unit of poetic speech which both names and describes. We speak of a P when we have the name of a person or thing substituted by a descriptive phrase. P renders a rarely individual perception of a thing or phenomenon, bringing out particular features which are essential for this varied context.

-His studio is probably full of the mute evidences of his faller.

P as a stylistic device is a new nomination which in most cases can be understood only in the context. P as well as other SD can be divided into original creations of in individual authors and tried ones many of which have become part of the general lexicon. (My better half - my wife, organs of vision - eyes, the fare sex - woman).

Stylistic periphrases may be logical and figurative. The logical P is based on a certain inherent or prominent feature of the object described. (Weak sex, strong sex, guardian of public order, instrument of destruction). Figurative P is based either on metaphor or metonymy. (Root of evil - money, to tie the knot - marriage, servant of all work - the sun.) Around about way of speaking about common things produces either a humorous effect or contributes to pompous lofty air.

 

Euphemism

E is a variety of a Periphrases. It stands as a substitute for a concept of thing which the author finds too unpleasant to name directly. E as a rule call up in the readers mind the word it stands for. To pass away, to be gun, to expire, to be no more, to depart, to join the silent majority, to breath ones last are all used in the meaning to die. In many languages there is a number of words which are forbidden to pronounce. In England in connection with puritan power plenty of words were substitute by other. (Heaven, Goodness, Lord - God; Old Nick, Gorge, Old Harry - Devil; the other place, a very uncomfortable place - hell etc). In modern English it is possible to distinguish between 3 groups of E:

1. Traditional E which have been long in use and because hackneyed or trite and turned into clichés.

2. Political, medical, parliamentary E. (Undernourishment - starvation, less fortunate people - poor people).

3. Individual E which are coined by writers. They are made up either for the purpose of showing that the character strives for speaking in a delicate manner or for producing a humorous effect. (Doctor Packer, one of the caught physicians and a man of ?menace/ emance? reputation for assisting at the increase of great families, was working up and down the drawing room).

 

Zeugma

Z is a figure of speech which consist of one main element and a number of adjunct. Adjunct represent semantically different word classes i.e. differing in the type and degree of cohesion with the main element. The element (or the word) which Z is based outers several combinations in different meanings literal and metaphoric. (She dropped a tear and her pocket handkerchief. He had a good taste in vine and whisky and an emergency ba in his bedroom.) (Он пил чай с лимоном, женой и удовольствием. Он ломал голову себе и ребра своему ослу.)

 

Pun

P is a SD based on the simultaneous realization of the meaning primary and derivative within the same context. (- Did you hit the woman with a child. - No sir, I hit her with a stick.) The play on words may be based either on a single polysemantic word (Her nose was sharp but not so sharp as her voice) or on complete or partial homonyms (- Have you ever seen spirits? - Or taken any?)

 

Irony

I is a SD based on the interaction of 2 logical meanings - dictionary and contextual. It can be understood in 2 senses brought and narrow. In a N sense I is a use of a word having a positive connotative meaning to express a negative evaluation of something. The word contradicts the real situation, the context and ?equares/ equates? a meaning contrary to its usual one. In a broader sense the utterance is considered ironical it testifies to a positive or neutral attitude of a speaker towards some fact or phenomenon and it implies his negative evaluation of it. Some words and phrases have a definite ironical connotative meaning which they keep in all contexts. (To speechify = speak too much not to the point, too clever by half = not very clever, a battle of books = scientific discussion). Sometimes a title of a literary work can be ironical but that irony is perceived only after having read the context of it. ("An Ideal Husband", It must be delightful to find oneself in a foreign country without a penny in ones pocket.)

 

Paradox

P is based on contrast being a statement contradictory toward as a self-evident truth. (I think that life is far too important a thing ever to talk seriously of it. Vine costs money, blood costs nothing.)

The appeal of a P lies in the fact that no matter how contradictory it may seem to the excepted maxim it contains a certain grain of truth which makes it an excellent vehicle of satire.

 

The use of phraseological units

Proverbs and sayngs are brief statements shoving in a condensed form the accumulated with life experience of the community and serving as conventional practical symbols for abstract ideas.

The main feature distinguishing proverbs and sayings from ordinary utterance remains their semantic aspect. Their literal meaning is suppressed by what may be termed their transferred meaning. In other words one meaning (literal) is the form for another. Earning ( transferred) which contains the idea. The most noticeable thing about functioning of sayings and proverbs is that __ the traditional model but with modifications.  These modifications will never break away from the invariants to such a degree that the correlation between the invariant modal of a word combination and its variant series to be perceived by the reader. The stylistic effect produced by p and s is the result of a ?2fout/ phote? application of l-ge means which is an indispensable conditions for their period in different SD. The modified form of the proverb is perceived against the background of the fixed form thus enlivening the letter. When a proverb is used in its unaltered form it can be qualified as an expressive means of a language. When used in a modified it assumes one on of the features though not becoming a SD.

Come, he said milk is spilled. You which side the law is buttered.

Epigrams

E are SD ?akin/acame? to proven. The only difference being that E are coined by individuals whose names we know while the Proverbs are the coinage of the people. In other words we are always aware of the parentage of an E and therefore when using one we usually makes reference to the author.

-Mighty is he who conquerors himself.

 

Allusion

A is an indirect reference by word or phrase to a historical, literary, mythological, biblical fact or to effect of everyday life made in the course of speaking or writing. (Viva is a judgment day).

5. Syntactical expressive means and stylistic devises

Of all the elements necessary to make an utterance meaningful and expressive the most powerful is syntax. It produces the effect by steps. It isn’t showy as lex S D. Syntax is the main conductor of emotions in the written type of the language. Any change of form will ennevativly cause a slide modification of the meaning. Ssd are based on 1. The transformation of a sentence or a lonely unit and a peculiar use of the lexical meanings of the stylistic pattern.

 

Inversion

The Eng lang has developed a fixed word order to show the syntactical function of words in the sentence. Any violation of the traditional word order which doesn’t alter the meaning of the sentence but adds logical stress and emotional coloring to the utterance is regarded as stylistic inversion. It may be presented by the following patterns

1. The object is placed at the beginning of the sent

Talent mr mcander capital mr mcandrew hasn’t.

2. The attribute is placed after the word it modifies.

With figures weary and warn.

3. The predicative is placed before the subject.

A good generous prayer it was.

4. The predicative stands before the link verb and both are placed before the subject.

Rude am I in my speech.

5. The adverbial modifier is placed at the beginning of the sentence.

My dearest daughter, at your feet I fall.

6. Both modifier and predicate stand before the subject.

In went mr pickwick.

 

Detachment

D is a sd consisting 7nsepcarating a secondary part of the sent with the aim of emphasizing it. The separation is accompanied by a violation of customary syntactical connections and lead to a logical break between the member detached and the main part of the sentence. Thus the words detached acquire a degree of independence and become more mobile. D is a kind of inversion and its aim is the same. To make some word and word comb more prominent than they might be in their customary place. D differs from inversion by breaking the customary connections between the members of the sent - a detached word stands a loof disconnected from the member it logically belongs to. It is always separated by comas, dashes, brackets. The most common of detached constructions are those in which an atrib or an adverbial is syntactically isolated from the words it refers to. ( elegant weary infinitely fragile, missis chamber lay back in her armchair, listening).

 

A variety of d is prefises. Peramphadise sent are grammatically indep of the sent into which they are inserted. They either emphasize or explain an utterance. (they hadn’t seen - no one could see - her distress , not even her grandfather).

 

Ellipsis

E is a deliberate omission of one or more words in the sent for some stylistic purpose. The omission of the some part of the sent is a typical feature of the spoken lang and is no therefore of sd it 7s a norm there. In the written lang this peculiarity of the spoken lang may be used in the to achieve some stylistic effect. E enables the author to convey the emotional state of the hero aston7sment, surprise etc. E is modt often used it the authors norrstion to convey the inner speech of the personage in the process of thinking (tom robinson (is) a human being).

 

Parallel constructions

Parallelism is the similarity of the syntactical structure of some clauses or sentences. Most often it can be observed in the microstructures such as a paragraph. P may be of 2 kinds complete and partial .CP is observed in cases when the structure of the successive unit holly copies the presiding one. Cp is a special peculiar to poetry. (the warm sunny shining, the blick queint is waylu, the bare bous assain, the pare of flowers are dying).

PP is a structural sameness of some parts of the successful units(the wind blew faster. It dragged nowin his coat, it blew its space about him, it a coat silently a lonely speciousness).

Parallel arrangement if often emloyed in oratorical speech making it emphatic rhythmical easy for comprehending and it helps to convince listeners and make them take the speakers point of view. Parallec const combined structurally and semantic help the author to crate rhythmical prose or poetry obtain lavonic and emotional style. In fiction the mane func of parallelism is to intensify the expressiveness of the utterance.

 

Chiasmus

C is a variety of a parallel constr. We come across c when the word order of the firs part of the sentence is inverted in the second. (a handsome man kisses misses, an ugly one misses kisses). C as a rule emphasize the second part of the utterance du to the sudden pose before it caused by unexpected change of word order all of these results in the readers deepeper penetration in the meaning of two words. C adds to rythm7cal arrangement of the utterance it may be also used to avoid the monotony or to produce a humorous effect.

 

Repetition

As an expressive means R serves to emphasize the steir of a personage when hi is under the stress of strong emotions. As a Sd R aims at logical emphasize an emphasize necessary to fix the attention of the reader on the key word of the sent or the utterance. (EM 'stop!' she cried, 'dont tell me! I don’t want to hear, I dont want to hear what you've come fore. I don’t want to hear.' SD for that was it! Ignorant of the long and stealthy much of passion, and of the state to which it had reduced fleur, ignorant of hal serms had watched her, ignorant of fleurs reckless desperation... - ignorant of all these everybody felt aggrieved.)

The str of rep may take different forms. Not only a single but a whole phrase can be repeated. It is possible to distinguish between the fall types of repetition:

1. Anaphora is the rep of the same word or phrase at the beginning of 2 ore more clauses or sentences.

2. Epiphora is the repetition of the unit at the end of 2 or more clauses or sentences.

3. Anadiplosis. The last word of phrase of one part of an utterance is repeated at the beginning of next thus hooking the 2 parts together. (3 fishes went sailing out into the west, out in to the west as the sun went down)

4. Chain repetition . In this case each subsequently repeated word is higher and stronger of quality and emotional coloring.

5. Framing. The initial parts of a syntactical unit in most cases of a paragraph are repeated at the end of it.

6. Synonymical rep is the expression of the same idea by various synonyms.

7. Morphological rep is the rep of the same morphemes.

 

The main funvc of the rep is to intensify the impression produced by the utterance to display different psychology and emotional states of the character his attitude towards the things described.

 

Polysyndeton is the sd connecting sent or phrases or words by using connectives before each component part.

 

Asyndeton is a connection between part of a sentence or between sent without any formal sign. It becomes a stylistic devise if there is a deliberate omission of the connective where it is generally expected to be according to the norms of the literary language.

 

Tautological subject is the rep of the sub expressed by a noun in the form of a pronoun. (And the maid,  she leaved with no other thought.) TS usually characterizes the emotional state of the speaker. It may be also a result of careless and colloquial speech it is rather peculiar to the speech of an uneducated and is mostly found in direct speech.

6. Break in the narrative

Bitn is a sudden break a speech as if the speaker was unable or unwilling to express what was in his mind. This stopping occurs most often in oral and colloquial speech. In comes natural and can be accompanied by gestures or intonation which help to supply the missing words. In dialogues of the written lang the author tries to reflect the natural character of the conversation to its full extend. A sudden break is usually caused by a strong absurge of emotions.(I do apologize Madam, I feel so... I wouldn't have troubled...) Braking thr nar is used when the narrator is exited to speak and because of this breaks off the sent or when he has no wish to go on speaking and make his thought complete for some other reason. This des is market graphically by dots and dashed ("Good intentions, but -")

 

Climax(Gradation)

This 2 terms denote such an arrangement correlative ideas in which what presides is less than what follows. Thus, the second element surpasses the first and is in its turn so passed by the third and so on. To it otherwise the firs elem 7s the weakest, the subsequent elem gradually increase in strength, the last being the strongest. It is clear that the m7nim nubb of elem is 2. A greater expressive effect is achieved by particip of 3 or more units of meanings. Climax is usually based on parallel structures. It can be of 3 types logical, emotional, quantitative. In log clim every succeeding concept is logically more imp than the previous one. (he may lock himself away, hide himself away, get guards about him, put an armor if he likes - death, the unseen, is coming) emotional climax present a raw of synonyms usually contextual ones with emotive meanings which gradually increase the emotional tension of the utterance (grand view isn’t to said harry magnificent i agree superb marked john)

Quantitative climax implies an increase in the volume, size and number of each succeeding concept. (they looked a hundred of houses, they inspected enumerable kitchens)

A very suddle effect 7s produced by a gradation which is based on the repetition of the same lexical morpheme represented in different gram structures (he was sleepy, he felt sleep was coming, he could up under the blanket and went to sleep)