Expressive Means and Stylistic Devices

Byron especially favors the device of bathos in his "Don Juan." Almost every stanza contains ordinarily unconnected concepts linked together by a coordinating conjunction and producing a mocking effect or a realistic approach to those phenomena of life which imperatively demand recognition, no matter how elevated the subject-matter may be.

Here are other illustrations from this epoch-making poem:

"heaviness of heart or rather stomach;"

"There's nought, no doubt, so much the spirit calms

As rum and true religion"

"...his tutor and his spaniel"

"who loved philosophy and a good dinner"

"I cried upon my first wife's dying day

And also when my second ran away."

We have already pointed out the peculiarity of the device, that it is half linguistic, half logical. But the linguistic side becomes especially conspicuous when there is a combination of stylistically heterogeneous words and phrases. Indeed, the juxtaposition of highly literary norms of expression and words or phrases that must be classed as non-literary, sometimes low colloquial or even vulgar, will again undoubtedly-produce a stylistic effect, and when decoded, will contribute to the content of the utterance, often adding an element of humour. Thus, for instance, the following from Somerset Maugham's "The Hour before Dawn":

"'Will you oblige me by keeping your trap shut, darling?' he retorted."

The device is frequently presented in the structural model which we shall call heterogeneous enumeration

 

2.3 Interaction of different types of lexical meaning

 

Words in context, as has been pointed out, may acquire additional lexical meanings not fixed in dictionaries, what we have called con-textual meanings. The latter may sometimes deviate from the dictionary meaning to such a degree that the new meaning even becomes the opposite of the primary meaning, as, for example, with the word sophisticated. This is especially the case when we deal with transferred meanings.

What is known in linguistics as transferred meaning is practically the interrelation between two types of lexical meaning: dictionary and contextual. The contextual meaning will always depend on the dictionary (logical) meaning to a greater or lesser extent. When the deviation from the acknowledged meaning is carried to a degree that it causes an unexpected turn in the recognized logical meanings, we register a stylistic device.

The transferred meaning of a word may be fixed in dictionaries as a result of long and frequent use of the word other than in its primary meaning. In this case we register a derivative meaning of the word. The term 'transferred' points to the process of formation of the derivative meaning. Hence the term 'transferred' should be used, to our mind, as a lexicographical term signifying diachronically the development of the se-, mantic structure of the word. In this case we do not perceive two meanings.

When, however, we perceive two meanings of a word simultaneously, we are confronted with a stylistic device in which the two meanings interact.

 

 

2.4 Interaction of primary dictionary and contextually imposed meaning

 

The interact ion or interplay between the primary dictionary meaning (the meaning which is registered in the language code as an easily recognized sign for an abstract notion designating a certain phenomenon or object) and a meaning which is imposed on the word by a micro-context may be maintained along different lines. One line is when the author identifies two objects which have nothing in common, but in which he subjectively sees a function, or a property, or a feature, or a quality that may make the reader perceive these two objects as identical. Another line is when the author finds it possible to substitute one object for another on the grounds that there is some kind of interdependence or interrelation between the two corresponding objects. A third line is when a certain property or quality of an object is used in an opposite or contradictory sense.

The stylistic device based on the principle of identification of two objects is called a metaphor. The SD based on the principle of substitution of one object for another is called metonymy and the SD based on contrary concepts is called irony.

Let us now proceed with a detailed analysis of the ontology, structure and functions of these stylistic devices.

The relations between different types of lexical meanings may be, based on various principles:

1) The principle of affinity-metaphor,

2) The principle of contiguity-metonymy

3) The principle of opposition-irony.

As it has been stated above the lexical meanings of a word comprise various meanings. But the difference between these meanings not be great and unexpected. In most cases these meanings appear on the principal of affinity existing between the notions and objects surrounding us.

The interaction or interplay between the primary dictionary meaning-the meaning which is registered in the language code as an easily recognized sign for an abstract notion designating a certain phenomenon or object-and a meaning which is imposed on the word by a micro-context may be maintained along different lines. One line is when the author identifies two objects which have nothing is common, but in which he subjectively sees a function, or a property, or a feature, or a quality that may make the reader perceive these two objects as identical. Another line is when the author finds it possible to substitute one object for another on the grounds that there is some kind of interdependence or interrelation between the two corresponding objects. A third line is when a certain property or contradictory sense.

The stylistic device based on the principle of identification of two objects is called a metaphor. The SD based on the principle of substitution of one object for another is called metonymy and the SD based on contrary concepts is called irony.

Metaphor. The term “metaphor”, as the etymology of the word reveal means transference of some quality from one object to another. From the times of ancient Greek and Roman rhetoric, the term has been known to denote the transference of meaning from one word to another. It is still widely used to designate the process in which a word acquires a derivative meaning. Quintilian remarks: It is due to the metaphor that each thing seems to have its name in language. “Language as a whole has been figuratively defined as a dictionary of faded metaphors.

Thus by transference of meaning the words grasp, get and see come to have the derivative meaning of understand. When these words are used with that meaning we can only register the derivative meaning existing in the semantic structures of the words.

Though the derivative meaning is metaphorical in origin, there is no stylistic effect because the primary meaning is no longer felt.

A metaphor becomes a stylistic device when two different phenomena-things, events, ideas, actions are simultaneously brought to mind by the imposition of some or all of the inherent properties of one object on the other which by nature is deprived of these properties .Such an imposition generally results when the creator of the metaphor finds in the two corresponding objects certain features which to his eye have something in common .

The idea that metaphor is based on similarity or affinity of two objects or notions is erroneous .The two objects are identified and the fact that a common feature is pointed to and made prominent doesn't make them similar .The notion of similarity can be carried on ad absurdum ,for example ,animals and human beings move , breathe ,eat ,but if one of these features ,i.e. movement ,breathing, is pointed to in animals and at the same time in human beings the two objects will not necessarily cause the notion of affinity.

Metaphor is not merely an artificial device making discourse more vivid and poetical. It is also necessary for the apprehension and communication of new ideas. It is the way in which creative minds perceive things.

Metaphors like many SDs must be classified according to three aspects:

1) The degree of expressiveness,

2) The structure i.e. in what linguistic form it is presented or by what part of speech it is expressed,

3) The function, i.e. the role of SD in making up an imagine.

The expressiveness of a SD depends on various aspects. Different authors and literary trends or movements have different sources where they borrow the material for images. Favourite images in oriental poetry are: nightingale, rose, moon. Nature, art, war, fairy tales and myths, science may also serve as sources for metaphorical images.

We distinguish genuine and trite metaphors. The metaphors in which images are quite unexpected are called genuine. Those which are commonly used-are called trite or dead metaphors. Genuine metaphors are also called speech metaphors .Genuine metaphors can easily become trite if they are frequently repeated.

There is an opinion that a metaphor is a productive way of building up new meanings and new words. Language can be called the “dictionary of faded metaphors”.

Examples of trite metaphors: The salt of life; a flight of imagination: the ladder of fame; to burn with passion (anger). The following metaphors enriched English phraseology; foot of a bed, leg of a chair, head of a nail, to be in the same boat, blind window, to fish for complements. Here Uzbek examples o`q yomg`iri, o`lim do`li buloq ko`zi.

Examples of genuine metaphors: The lips were tight little traps the whole space was a bowl of heat; this virus carried a gun; the dark swallowed him;

Mrs. Small`s eyes boiled with excitement; the words seemed to dance …. Xademay, ularning safari qoridi. Daryo oqar, vaqt oqar, umr oqar paydar-pay. Boshimdan kaptarlardekuchdi ming-minglab xauol. Gullar go`yo eshitar ta`zim.

Very often trite metaphors are given new force and their primary dead meaning is created a new. It is achieved by introducing new additional images. Such metaphors are called sustained or prolonged: “Our family rivulet joined other streams and the stream was a river pouring into St. Thomas Church” (J. Steinbeck).

Jimjitlik bor joyda xayot so`nadi. Jimjitlik toshni xam, ko`ngilni xam emiradi. Tingan suvni qurt bosadi.

Thus, trite metaphors regain freshness due to the prolongation. Metaphors may have a sustained form in cases with genuine metaphors as well.

Usually a metaphor may be expressed by any part of speech.

The main function of the metaphor is to create images. Genuine metaphors create bright images in poetry and emotive prose. Trite metaphors are widely used in newspaper and scientific style. Here it is not a shortcoming of style. They help the author make the meaning more concrete and brighten his writing as it is an indispensable quality of human thought and perception.

There is an opinion according to which metaphor is defined as a compressed simile. Prof. I.R. Galper in considers this approach as misleading because metaphor identifies objects while simile finds some point of resemblance and by this keeps the objects apart. He says their linguistic nature is different.

When likeness is observed between inanimate objects and human qualities, we have the cases of personification:

Slowly, silently, now the moon

Walks the night in her silvery shoon

This way and they and that the she peers and sees

Silver fruit upon silver trees

Here the examples of personification (jonlantiruvchi) of Uzbek languages. Xozir Farg`ona bog`larida to`kin kuz. O`rikzorlar tukini o`zgartirib boshiga olov rang qip-qizil durra bog`lagan. Tutzorlar boshida malla qalpoq.

Metonymy--is a transfer of meaning based upon the association of contiguity-proximity. In metonymy the name of one thing is applied to another with which it has some permanent or temporary connection: He felt as though he must find a sympathetic intelligent ear (Th drieser).

Guldur etib, bulut tarqab

Yalt-yult etib chaqmoq chaqdi,

Ishchi bobo seskansang-chi!

Sharqqa quyosh chinlab chiqdi!

In this Uzbek example the word “sharq” means countries and notions of East.

The transfer of meanings may be based on temporal spatial, casual, functional, instrumental and other relations.

Like metaphors metonymy can be divided into trite metonymy-i.e. words of metonymic origin and genuine metonymy.

In trite metonymy the transferred meaning is established in the semantic structure of the word as a secondary meaning. In the course of time its figurativeness and emotional colouring fades away.

Eg: nickel, the coin of the US and Canada worth 5cent: hand, a workman; bench, a judge; cradle, the place where something begins; grave, death;house, the people voting after a debate. Qo`l-ishchi kuchi, beshik boshlang`ich joy

If the interrelation between the dictionary and contextual meanings stands out clearly then we can speak about the expressiveness of metonymy and in this easy we have genuine metonymy .In order cases we have only one of the lexicological problems -how new words and meanings are coined .In most traditional metonymies the contextual meanings are fixed in dictionaries and have a note -fig .Metonymy may be divided into figures of speech established in the language and individual speech. Metonymy established in the language is frequent in colloquial speech. E.g. the whole table was stirring with impatience .e.g. the people sitting round the table were impatient.Terim paytida ko'p qo'l kerak buladi.Uning qalami qasos o'ti bilan yonardi .Green fingers ,people who have skill for growing gardens blue -collars-workers, a symbol of non-manual labor .

Metonymy is based on different relations of contiguity.

1) a leading significant feature of a person can be used instead of its possessor:Whois the moustache ?-(who is the man?). Olive uniforms (young men); cotton prints (women ) .''Tantanali majlis zalida “a'lo “, “yaxshi” qator o'tirdi.

2) a symbol can be used for an object : Then I think of taking silk ( to become a lawyer). Nicolay zamonida ostonam tuyoq ko'rmagan .

3) The name of the place can be used for somebody or something connected with it; It was too late for the river (a picnic on the riverside ) .Majlisga butun qishloq keldi. Auditoriya kuldi.

4) A concrete noun may stand for an abstract one: My mother's voice had the true.

5) An abstract notion may stand for a concrete one: Subservience sprang round the counter (weak and mild people were standing round the counter).

6) An abject may denote an action; When I awakened old sleepy Mary was up and gone … and coffee and bacon were a foot (the break fast was ready).

Certainly the types of metonymy are not limited. There may appear new types of relations for the origin of metonymy. A metonymy differs from a metaphor by the fact that a metaphor may be periphrased into a simile by the help of such words as: as if, so as, like etc. With metonymy you cannot do so.

The sources where images for metonymy are borrowed are quite different: features of a person, an object, facial appearance, names of writers and poets, names of their books, name of some instruments, etc.

The expressiveness of metonymy may be different. Metonymy used in emotive prose is often called contextual and in this case is considered to be genuine and unexpected.

Eg: The brown suit gaped at her. The blue suit grinned, might even have winked. But the big nose in the gray suit stared-and he had small angry eyes and even did not smile (J. Preistley). Qo`shiq kuylar qizaloq

Tinglar uni dala, bog`

Prof Galperin states that in order to decipher the true meaning of a genuine metonymy a broader context is necessary ( not the same with a metaphor). Though for trite metonymy the case is not the same. We can see this from the following examples: fifty sails (instead of fifty ships), smiling year (for spring). In the morning old Hitler-face questioned me again (S. Sillitoe). I get my living by the sweat of my brow (with difficulty); to earn one's bread lone`s means of living); to live by the pen (by writing); to keep one's mouth shut (be silent).

Synecdoche is the case when the part of an object is called instead of the whole object. It has given rise to many phraseological units under one's roof (in one's house); not to lift a foot (do not help, when help is needed);

Usually metonymy is expressed by nouns or substantivized numerals or attributive constructions; she was a pale and fresh a eighteen.

The functions of metonymy are different. The general function of metonymy is building up imagery and it mainly deals with generalization of concrete objects. Hence nouns in metonymy are mostly used with the definite article, or without it at all (definite and zero articles have a generalizing function).

Besides, metonymy have a characterizing function when it is used to make then character's description significant or rather insignificant (by mentioning only his hat and collar. It ahs the function of introducing a new person into the book.

Irony is based on the realization of two logical meanings (dictionary and contextual). Which stand in opposition? It is the clash of two diametrically opposite meanings. Eg: The man they had got now was a jolly, light-hearted, thick-headed sort of a chap, with about as much sensitiveness in him. (J.K.)

Mana shu uchun ko`pchilik Yaponlar bunday “yoqimly”taasurotlaridan ko`raishlash ming marta afzal deydilar.

In this utterance two words: “thick-headed” means a stupid, dull person and “sensitiveness” means of sensitive person who is easily hurt in the spirit easily offended. And “yoqimli” means “yoqimsiz”.

Sometimes irony is mixed up with sarcasm. Sarcasm is a bitter or wounding remark, taunt, especially ironically worded. Usually socially or politically aimed irony is also called sarcasm: once upon a time in a sceptered island ruled a Great white Queen and enchantress…

Beloved by her subjects, she ruled with a stern, but loving hand, disallowing anything that was not good for them…

In fact the majority of people did not have to work at all, only the rich, were punished, left with the worries that money brings.

In this text the author gives a sarcastic description of the former prime minister of Great Britain-M. Thatcher. Sarcasm appears due to the use of contradictory notions: a stern, but loving hand; a Queen and enchantress disallow anything that was not good for them, only rich people were left with worries etc. Sarcasm is kept whole due to the use of such devices as periphrasis: “a sceptered island” instead of Great Britain; litotes- disallowing anything that was not good for them; epithets-a sceptered island, a stern and loving hand.

Irony largely depends on the environment. We ought to distinguish between irony and humour. Humour causes laughter. But the function of irony is not to produce a humorous effect only. In some cases it can express a feeling of irritation, displeasure, pity or regret. Richard Attick says: “The effect of irony lies in the striking disparity between what is said and was meant “Eg: Stoney smiled the sweet smile of an alligator. “Xali uyga kelsang, boshingni silab, qo`yaman”. “Imtixonga juda “yaxshi” tayorlanib kelibsiz, qizim, baxongiz “ikki”-dedi o`qituvchi.

To mark out ironically used words in written language such graphic means as inverted commas and italicized words are used. Sometimes it is only the situation that can prompt the use of irony. In oral speech the main role in recognition of irony belongs to intonation and situation. The following phrase “There is gratitude for you!” (Thanks for you) may be said ironically, depending on the situation and the intonation with which you use it.

In the Uzbek language irony can be expressed by morphological form of plurality for example.

Saboxat xonaga sinchkov ko`z ugurtirarkan, nimadandir xursand bo`lganday og`zini tanobi qochib, ixtexzo bilaniljayardi.

-Nega aqalli qizlaringizniyo`qlab bormaysiz, desam turishlaringiz shoxona ekanda,-dedi nixoyatkesatiq bilan.

 

2.5 Stylistic Devices Based on the Interaction of Logical and Emotive Meaning

 

The emotive meaning of a word can be clearly understood if we introduce the notion of neutral meaning. It denotes the unemotional communication: Stylistic of emotional word and constructions are easily sensed when they are set against the non emotional words and constructions.

Interjections. Usually these words express our feeling such as regret, despair, sorrow, woe, surprise, astonishment etc. In the previous parts we have spoken about interjections which were defined as expressive means of the language. Emotionally coloured features of interjections after conscious and intentional intensification of their structural and semantic properties move up to a generalized status and become a stylistic device.

Interjections may be divided into simple and derivative.

Simple interjections: Oh! Ah! Bah! Pooh! Gosh! Hush! Alas! Voy! Eh! Oh! Be! Ie! Iy! Voey! E-ha! xa! Voy-bo`y! Xaya! I-i! Yop! Ey! Xax! Obbo!

Derivative interjections:Heavens! Good gracious!

Dear me! Good! By the lord! God knows! Bless me! Hum bug! Yopiray! Tavba! Alvido! Yopirim! Parvardigor! Barakalla!, “Xe, mayli-da, uka, buyam endi qirq yilda bir eshak o`yin deganday gap-da. Voy, Xushomadgo`y-ey!” Voy, otasi tushgur-ey, dedi kula-kula Musa, -men sizni so`fi, bunday ishlarga r`tabor qilmaydi deb yursam, sizda gap ko`p ekan. Voy, otasi tushkur-ey!

There are a number of adjectives and adverbs which may be classified as interjections. Among them are the following: terrible, awful, great, wonderful, splendid. When they are used as interjections they are not used in their logical dictionary meanings. In most cases they are used in their emotive meanings as intensifiers.